Hydro-Power. The Use of Water as an Alternative Source of Energy

553 Pages·1980·17.15 MB·English

by  Charles Simeons (Auth.)

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HYDRO-POWER
The Use of Water as an
Alternative Source of Energy
CHARLES SIMEONS M.A.
Industrial Consultant
Director of the Action Learning Trust
Former Member of the British Parliament
PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD · NEW YORK ■ TORONTO · SYDNEY ■ PARIS · FRANKFURT
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FEDERAL REPUBLIC Pergamon Press GmbH, 6242 Kronberg-Taunus,
OF GERMANY Pferdstrasse 1, Federal Republic of Germany
Copyright © 1980 C. Simeons
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic,
magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
First edition 1980
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Simeons, Charles
Hydro-power
1. Water-power electric plants
2. Water-power
I. Title
621.312Ί34 TK1081 79-41535
ISBN 0 08 023269 8
In order to make this volume available as economically
and as rapidly as possible the author's typescript has
been reproduced in its original form. This method has
its typographical limitations but it is hoped that they in
no way distract the reader.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
William Clowes (Beccles) Limited, Beccles and London
Foreword
For many years I worked in industry, responsible for a factory producing speciality
chemicals for the photographic industry. We were very conscious of the need to
conserve fuel, mainly because it saved us money.
In 1970 I was elected a Member of the British Parliament; but not for very long.
I was swept out again following the coal crisis of 1974 in the Election which
followed.
During my time in the House of Commons I made my contribution as to the needs of
industry, the environment and heavy lorries, drawing upon my experience in these
fields. But of energy production I knew very little.
And yet, as an M.P. I was expected to join the decision making on a wide range of
issues, including energy, without any real knowledge of the technology.
I was aware of considerable need to become better informed. It was also clear
that there were very few source books which brought together the information
scattered over a broad area published by people expert in their own particular
field. Here was the chance to achieve this and at the same time learn more about
energy.
I began with Oil and Natural Gas Recovery in Europe. This was followed by a study
of Energy R &D Programmes in Western Europe. I then examined Coal and it's Role
in To-morrow's Technology, in a world-wide context.
Now it is the turn of Water as an alternative energy source. It is a vast subject
to which it is virtually impossible to do justice in one study.
What I have attempted to do is to examine the principles of the technology involved
in the extraction of energy from water for use in some other form. Then to take a
look at some of the projects which a number of countries are undertaking.
I am immensely grateful to all those who sent information which I acknowledge in
the Bibliography, not least the Indian Official who forwarded an envelope bearing
287 stamps.
I hope my efforts will be of interest to those who like myself had little knowledge
of the potential contribution which water can make to our energy needs.
Also that the expert will find the detail and statistics useful as a pointer to
general trends.
VII
1.
Water and the Energy Gap
INTRODUCTION
Two thirds of world energy demand is accounted for by the United States, Japan and
Western Europe: oil features prominently. Because of this dependence upon oil
by these blocks, prices for oil and gas in 1973 were forced up. Consumption then
fell.
In the following year published figures for world energy consumption showed it to
be running at around 5600 mtoe. By 1975, the United Nations Organisations
Statistics, published in 1976, showed that consumption had fallen still further,
to 4060 mtoe. This was accounted for in part by conservation measures, but also
as a result of industrial stagnation.
Today, the industrial world runs predominantly on oil, followed by natural gas and
coal. Waterpower and nuclear energy contribute only a small part to the total
demand. Proven reserves of oil and gas, recoverable through the use of current
technology, are sufficient to meet world needs until 1990, and possibly beyond,
although future discoveries may be sufficient to enable both to be used well
beyond that date. Coal reserves are likely to be sufficient for a further
hundred years. However, these reserves are not found where they are needed, but
scattered world wide as well as being difficult to recover, in many instances.
The problems associated with coal recovery are described in "Coal: Its role in
tomorrow's technology".
Those in need of oil generally have to import while the countries possessing the
reserves usually have very little need - that is until their manufacturing
capabilities become developed.
It is not surprising therefore that alternative strategies are being pursued by
countries world wide, since nations are interdependent and in need of international
collaboration on an unprecedented scale. However, this type of exercise requires
adequate backing - finance, labour resources and ingenuity - with a common
objective, all brought together in a way rarely experienced except in times of war.
The International Energy Agency and the European Community Commission are such
vehicles.
While these organisations tend to work in international & EEC spheres, they often
co-operate so avoiding duplication of effort.
1
2 Hydro Power
ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND PROJECTIONS
Experience has shown that energy consumption runs parallel with the level of the
Gross Domestic Product. This will place a theoretical strain on the large energy
consuming countries. An indication of the trends can be seen from projections
made, by the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, England, of energy demand growth
rates for world regions employing assumptions for economic growth as the basis -
using high and low levels, as shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 Projected Energy Demand Growth Rates for World
Regions
i Region Energy AAPG Energy AAPG Energy AAPG
1960-72 1972-85 1985-2000
Unconstrained Unconstrained |
High Low High Low ]
i N. America 4.1 2.6 1.9 2.6 1.9
W. Europe 5.2 3.3 2.6 2.9 2.2
Japan 11.2 5.2 3.6 4.1 2.8 !
Rest WOCA 6.8 6.3 5.0 5.0 3.8 !
WOCA 5.2 3.6 2.8 4.0 2.5 j
WOCA shown in Table 1 represents the world outside the communist area.
These projects for potential energy supply to 1985 take into account the unexpec­
ted surplus capacity for oil production during this period which might well
inhibit the growth of alternatives. From 1985 to 2000 a fast expansion is
assumed for both coal and nuclear energy although rates of expansion are con­
strained by the lead times necessary for developing the industries.
By comparison actual figures for the European Communities show in land consumption
of primary energy, for each source, to be as listed in Table 2.
TABLE 2 Six Months Primary Energy Consumption Comparison
1977/8 for the Community
Jan-June '77 Jan-June '78 % Change
78/77
M.t.o.e. M.t.o.e.
Hard coal etc. 89.7 91.4 + 1.9
Lignites 13.0 13.7 + 5.4
Crude Oil 253.3 255.4 + 0.8
Natural Gas 83.9 88.5 + 5.4
Nuclear 13.6 13.7 + 0.7
Hydroelectric
19.6 16.4 -16.3
geothermal etc.
Total gross in
land consumption 473.1 479.1 + 1.3
i for six months
It is interesting to note from Table 2 that despite an overall increase in con­
sumption of 1.3%, that derived from hydro-electric and geothermal sources fell by
Water and The Energy Gap 3
16.3%. What the figures do not show, however, is that 90% of all coal burned was
used in three countries only: the United Kingdom account for 53%, Germany 28% and
France 13%. In 1977 coal, a prime candidate for the generation of electricity,
was roughly in balance, in terms of internal consumption, in U.K., France and
Belgium, while in Germany, despite a fall off in production of some 10% below
capacity, a surplus resulted. Overall production within the community was down
4%.
With coal surplus to needs, it is not surprising that further attempts to increase
generation of electricity from sources, other than nuclear energy, is not a top
priority in Europe.
However, while the Community objective of a 40% dependence upon imports target by
1985 is clearly not attainable, it is now hoped that a 50% figure will be achieved,
as shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3 Energy Dependence - European Community
1973 61%
1974 61%
1975 57%
1976 58%
1977 54%
1985 50%
The figure shown for 1985 in Table 3 is made up of the mean of a number of fore­
casts. By this time, however, the nuclear programme will not be sufficiently
advanced to make a marked contribution to total energy needs.
Reduced Import Dependence
Import dependence is a problem facing most of the non communist world. It is not
therefore surprising that steps are being taken to reduce consumption and at the
same time replace, if only in part, those sources which are non renewable or in
restricted supply.
The fundamental need is to develop those alternative strategies which
are the most economical in the use of non-renewable resources
have least impact upon the balance of payments
are least harmful to the environment
This means promoting research and development of alternative sources of supply:
nuclear fusion, solar energy, geothermal energy or the recovery, re-use and
recycling of every kind of energy and materials. Water as a source of energy is a
useful, although expensive, contribution.
Parallel with this objective is a vital need to reduce the rate at which demand for
energy is growing and then to reduce the absolute level of demand itself, sector by
sector.
Taking the field of transport as an example, it should be remembered that in the
United States 25% of all energy used gas in transportation. In the U.S., 96% of
all energy used is derived from oil much of which - 60% - is imported. Figures
for Europe although lower, stand at 14% and 95% respectively. The solution to
making savings in transport may lie in the development of electric vehicles.
4 Hydro Power
The part which water can play in the generation of electricity is probably under­
stood by most people. The use of wave and tidal power receive a considerable
amount of publicity and are known too.
However, the production of hydrogen for use as an energy carrier is not so well
appreciated or the need for the use of hydrogen in the process of upgrading low Btu
gas.
The traditional method of production of electricity by hydrogeneration is more
extensive than may appear at first sight, as can be seen from Table 4.
Figures shown in Table 4 show that the countries with greatest capacity for elec­
tricity from hydro-electric sources are:
Norway - 99.5%
Zambia - 97.7%
Iceland - 96%
Netherlands - 90%
Brazil - 88%
Switzerland - 87%
Morocco - 85%
Luxembourg - 81%
Clearly water available under the right conditions offers a very considerable
potential. The countries listed above obtain their electricity by conventional
means. By contrast those with the greatest tidal potential feature fairly low in
the ratings at present, namely:
Australia - 28%
India - 42%
Korea - 15%
United Kingdom - 32%
U.S.A. - 13%
U.S.S.R. - 21%
The exception is Canada which already enjoys 60% hydro capacity.
The remaining chapters set out to examine that potential by countries for energy
derived from water.
First the technology will be discussed and examined in principle for Wave Power,
Tidal, the generation of Hydrogen, Storage and finally conventional hydro-electric.
This will be followed by a report upon current development among those countries
which responded to the appeal for information.
But first a review of resources, development to date and factors affecting develop­
ment will be examined.
Water and The Energy Gap 5
TABLE 4 Electrical Energy 1976 Including Hydro Sources
lOOOs KW's PUBLIC SUPPLY Millions kWh's
Installed Capacity Produced
Total Hydro Hydro
Argentina 7,876 1,721 5,000
Australia 19,957 5,535 15,595
Belgium 9,788 502 334
Brazil 20,405 18,000 79,170
Canada 59,040 35,604 189,364
Chile 1,891 1,355 5,453
Columbia 3,500 2,350 9,700
Czechoslovakia 11,367 1,758 3,331
Egypt 3,900 2,500 7,000
Finland 5,236 2,018 7,538
France 41,328 17,439 44,500
Germany D.M. 12,232 719 1,113
West Germany 64,833 5,581 12,099
Ghana 900 792 4,221
Greece 4,599 1,415 1,870
Iceland 523 503 2,349
India 21,539 9,029 34,827
Iran 3,689 804 3,974
Ireland 2,162 531 892
Italy 36,055 14,908 33,350
Japan 104,271 24,887 82,300
Korea 4,810 711 1,789
Luxembourg 1,157 932 524
Mexico 11,460 4,541 17,011
Morocco 980 833 978
Mozambique 680 514 1,750
Netherlands 15,009 13,509 52,228
New Zealand 5,125 3,471 14,922
Nigeria 955 420 2,525
Norway 14,966 14,940 71,171
Pakistan 1,911 772 4,600
Peru 1,360 1,090 4,400
Phillipines 2,083 896 3,420
Poland 3,354 2,323 2,098
Portugal - - 4,859
Rumania 11,223 2,680 8,037
S. Africa 14,364 329 1,876
S. Rhodesia 1,141 705 4,856
Spain 25,501 12,405 21,357
Sweden 21,440 11,143 50,698
Switzerland 12,016 10,410 23,430
Thailand 2,543 910 3,637
Turkey 3,852 1,861 8,333
U.S.S.R. 205,907 42,931 135,135
United Kingdom 72,781 2,349 4,159
United States 531,287 67,798 283,680
Venezuela 4,552 2,245 10,524
Yugoslavia 9,408 5,023 20,459
Zambia 973 951 6,539
6 Hydro Power
HYDRAULIC RESOURCES
Some 23% of the world's electricity is at present derived from Hydraulic Energy.
It is a renewable resource; it is reliable and flexible and therefore forms part
of any general water resource programme.
For this reason, when a hydroelectric development, of whatever size, is envisaged,
the initial planning stage must take into consideration all water resource needs
and the way in which they are to be met. Hydroelectric development must not be
considered in isolation from the general requirements of the community.
Water supply in many parts of the world is a controlling factor in human and
commercial activity. This is being appreciated to an increasing degree in many
parts of the world where management and control of river basins are seen as the
logical way of using and conserving water resources.
This method of approach has been introduced in Britain where England and Wales are
divided into ten authorities, France with six bassins and Belgium with its three
areas of control. The United States, because of its size and considerable "State
Autonomy", looks on partly with envy and partly in a spirit of doubt as to whether
river basin control is applicable there. Other countries not plagued with pollu­
tion from modern industrial processes, are moving fast to river water quality con­
trol including that of harnessing of the power potential.
Tidal Barrages and Wave Power introduce new problems. While wave power is very
local in effect and unlikely to cause hazard, other than near shipping lanes,
tidal barrages come into quite a different category, making their impact upon a
whole range of factors which affect the quality of life. These include:-
movements of shipping
tidal patterns and levels
local nuisance during construction
erosion of the coast line
Where rivers are shared jointly by bordering states as in the case of the Rhine,
running from Switzerland through Germany, skirting France and passing through the
Netherlands to the sea, river management is vital. It isn't surprising therefore
that in the early 70's it was said that as the Rhine passed through Rotterdam, it
brought with it annually 1000 tons of mercury, 250 tons of arsenic and 100 tons of
cadmium. Joint action is now setting about to put this right - over a period.
Equally, without adequate management a crisis in water supply could equal that
which is threatened in energy, the tip of the ice-berg becoming clear from
experience in both fields over the past few years.
It is interesting to note that the United Nations Environmental Programme includes
the drawing up of a policy for water management in developing countries.
Development should proceed on a broad front, the plan making sure that a full
economic return is obtained from any energy contribution which can be made. The
benefits may include irrigation and combining navigational needs with power
generation such as in the Danube and St. Lawrence developments.
Such projects involve the consideration of a number of factors:
Legal and political
Technological
Environmental
Social impact