Table Of ContentENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE U
d
d
a
m Edited by
Hydraulic Fracturing Impacts and Technologies e
r
i •
A Multidisciplinary Perspective M Venkatesh Uddameri
o
r
s
e
Hydraulic Fracturing Impacts and Technologies: A Multidisciplinary • Audra Morse
T
Perspective serves as an introduction to hydraulic fracturing and provides in
d Kay J. Tindle
balanced coverage of its benefits and potential negative effects. Presenting le
a holistic assessment of hydraulic fracturing and its environmental impacts,
this book chronicles the history and development of unconventional oil and
H
gas production and describes the risks associated with the use of these
y
technologies. Most specifically, it addresses hydraulic fracturing’s use and
d
dependence on large amounts of water, and considers the importance r
a
of potable water as a fracturing medium. It examines the limits of reusing
u
flowback and produced water, explores cost-effective ways to clean or l
i
effectively dispose of water used in fracturing, and provides suggestions for c
the efficient use, discovery, and recycle ability of potable water. Utilizing a F
team of experts from industry and academia, the text provides readers with r
a
a multiple lens approach—incorporating various perspectives and solutions c
surrounding this evolving technology. t
u
r
This book: i
n
• Leads with an overview of hydraulic fracturing operations g
and technologies I
m
• Considers a variety of legal issues associated with hydraulic fracturing
p
a
• Summarizes human health and environmental risks associated
c HHyyddrraauulliicc FFrraaccttuurriinngg
with hydraulic fracturing operations
t
s
• Discusses the analytes chosen by researchers as possible indicators
a
of groundwater contamination from unconventional drilling processes IImmppaaccttss aanndd TTeecchhnnoollooggiieess
n
• Presents strategies for reducing the freshwater footprint d
of hydraulic fracturing T
e
• Discusses water treatment technologies and solutions to recycle c
AA MMuullttiiddiisscciipplliinnaarryy
h
and reuse produced waters, and more
n
o PPeerrssppeeccttiivvee
Hydraulic Fracturing Impacts and Technologies: A Multidisciplinary
l
o
Perspective brings together experts from disciplines that include petroleum,
g
civil, and environmental engineering; environmental sciences, chemistry,
i
e
toxicology; law; media and communications; and provides readers with a
s
multidisciplinary outlook and unbiased, scientifically credible solutions.
K25571
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
an informa business
2 Park Square, Milton Park
www.crcpress.com Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK www.crcpress.com
Hydraulic Fracturing
Impacts and Technologies
A Multidisciplinary
Perspective
Edited by
Venkatesh Uddameri
Audra Morse
Kay J. Tindle
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Version Date: 20150422
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-2121-9 (eBook - PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to
copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has
not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit-
ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.
com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and
registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC,
a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword ....................................................................................................................v
Prologue ...................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgments .....................................................................................................ix
Editors .......................................................................................................................xi
Contributors ...........................................................................................................xiii
Introduction to Hydraulic Fracturing Impacts and Technologies:
A Multidisciplinary Perspective ............................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing Operations and Technologies .......1
George E. King
Chapter 2 Economic Impact of the Permian Basin’s Oil and Gas Industry .......21
Bradley T. Ewing, Marshall C. Watson, Terry McInturff,
and Russell McInturff
Chapter 3 From Property Rights to Endangered Species: Legal Issues
Surrounding Hydraulic Fracturing .....................................................65
William R. Keffer, J. Randall Miller, J. Berton Fisher,
Taylor Stevenson, and Adrianne Waddell
Chapter 4 Looking into the Crystal Ball: Potential New EPA Hydraulic
Fracturing Rules Impacting Unconventional Oil and Gas
Production from Shale Plays ..............................................................83
Ron Truelove
Chapter 5 Commentary on Health and Environmental Risks from
Hydraulic Fracturing ..........................................................................91
David Klein, Jennifer Knaack, and Audra Morse
Chapter 6 Health and Environment Risks from Oil and Gas Development .....101
Anne C. Epstein
Chapter 7 Addressing Concerns about Impacts from Unconventional
Drilling Using Advanced Analytical Chemistry .............................115
Doug D. Carlton Jr., Zacariah L. Hildenbrand,
Brian E. Fontenot, and Kevin A. Schug
iii
iv Contents
Chapter 8 Water Availability in the Permian Basin Region of West Texas ......133
Venkatesh Uddameri and Danny Reible
Chapter 9 Reuse and Recycling of Flowback and Produced Waters ................159
John H. Williams, Danny Reible, Roxana Darvari, Tony
Vercellino, and Audra Morse
Chapter 10 Impact of Hydraulic Fracturing on Transportation Infrastructure......175
Sanjaya Senadheera
Chapter 11 GIS-Based Assessment of Wastewater Disposal Impacts in
Permian Basin, Texas .......................................................................187
Elma Annette Hernandez, Sreeram Singaraju, Abdullah Karim,
Jorge Ruiz de Viñaspre, and Venkatesh Uddameri
Chapter 12 Challenges and Opportunities for Increasing Guar Production
in the United States to Support Unconventional Oil and Gas
Production ........................................................................................207
Noureddine Abidi, Sumedha Liyanage, Dick Auld,
Robert K. Imel, Lewis Norman, Kulbhushan Grover,
Sangu Angadi, Sudhir Singla, and Calvin Trostle
Chapter 13 Characterization of the Properties of Guar Gum to Improve
Hydraulic Fracturing Efficiencies ....................................................227
Noureddine Abidi and Sumedha Liyanage
Chapter 14 Communicating Fracturing Impacts and Technologies:
Assessment, Public Understanding, and Theoretical Linkages .......251
Shawna R. White, R. Glenn Cummins, Melanie Sarge,
and Erik P. Bucy
Chapter 15 Multidisciplinary Teams as Mechanisms of Accountability:
Neutralizing the Emotions and Politics of Hydraulic
Fracturing Research .........................................................................273
Kay J. Tindle, Daniel Marangoni, and Anna Thomas Young
Foreword
Water: The Universe’s Most Precious Resource
Water is the limiting resource throughout the universe, and although the earth has
an abundance of it, its value and therefore its efficient use are, and will always be,
paramount to humankind’s survival and prosperity. As we have entered the twenty-
first century, water is becoming the new gold, a commodity being valued like never
before. The recognition of the value of water has been brought about by the demands
of a rapidly expanding human population and the concomitant demands of potable
water for hygiene, health, food, energy, and power. This has been exacerbated by the
possibility of climate change, and as with all periods in human history, it is fair to
say water is life and life is water. It is critical, in fact imperative, that we educate all
humankind in the efficient use of water, in all its forms, that we develop reasonable
laws governing its use, and that we continue research in water cleanup, production
and discovery, and effective agricultural use. In addition, scientists and engineers
must continue to develop new technologies, new methodologies, and new processes
for energy production and power generation, providing for all of us a healthy, pros-
perous, and sustainable future.
A critical aspect of water use in the near-term and midterm is for oil and gas pro-
duction utilizing hydraulic fracturing (technically correct terminology), or fracking
as the critics of this technology like to call it. Hydraulic fracturing, and its use of
potable water as a fracing medium, has been around for more than 70 years, with little
public concern or notice. However, the confluence of rapid population growth and its
demand for potable water, the growth of environmentalism and growing awareness of
the need for sustainable development and growth (the so-called energy/food nexus),
coupled with the development of horizontal drilling and the concomitant use of large
amounts of potable water in hydraulic fracturing (6–8 million gallons per frac) has
led to slogans such as “Leave my fracking water alone.” These sentiments have been
exacerbated by exploration and development companies using poor engineering tech-
niques and, in some cases, by the use of old technology resulting in the creation of
urban myths, such as initiating earthquakes and causing water coming from wells
to flame, and in creating a general fear of polluting the water table and local envi-
ronment. Finally, a lack of appreciation by oil and gas producers that they need to
educate the public on the benefits and risks of this technology has caused confusion
and further inflamed public perception. This vocal resistance to fracing makes little
sense in light of facts. There is a great story to tell of the promise of near energy inde-
pendence while providing, for the first time, a cushion to develop renewable energy
sources along with more energy availability now for the developing world.
So, what will the future be, fracking or fracing here in the Permian Basin and
elsewhere? Our hydraulic fracturing future will look bright if we (i.e., scientists,
engineers, and policy makers) effectively educate the public on the use of this tech-
nology, while continuing to value our most precious resource, water. As energy
professionals, we must increase our understanding through continuing knowledge
v
vi Foreword
development (research), while educating and informing the public and the policy
makers on how hydraulic fracturing can be used to help realize an environmentally
secure and sustainable future for all humanity. It is imperative that we take the time
to educate the public on the risks and benefits of such technologies, recognizing that
there are real, but very manageable, risks. We must educate and train our young
engineers, scientists, and public policy makers on how to assess those risks and take
advantage of new science and technologies to effectively use and reuse our precious
water resources to provide the energy needs for all aspects of human life, and to do
so in a way that respects the fact that water is a limited resource. Energy companies,
national and state governments, and those of us at universities must make substantive
investments in our efficient use of water, its discovery, and its recycle ability to build
a sustainable future in which hydraulic fracturing will play a substantial role in near-
term and midterm oil and gas production. Guided by ethical considerations, deci-
sions must be made in an unbiased but educated fashion, should be data driven, and
should not be guided (and likely misguided) by emotion or the possibility of rapid
financial gain. However, in order to make such decisions on the use of hydraulic
fracturing for oil and gas production, research will be needed on the limits of reus-
ing flowback and produced water and on cost-effective ways to clean or effectively
dispose any water used in fracturing. Also, research needs to be done on the use of
alternate water sources for hydraulic fracturing, such as brackish water, and the use
of other unconventional fluids for fracturing, as well as preventing casing failures.
Scientific and technological challenges and opportunities are substantial. Effective
hydraulic fracturing requires a better understanding of the interactions and transport
of multiple phase fluids through porous media and the associated thermodynamics of
these systems under high pressure and temperature, as well as a better understanding
of petrophysics associated with these plays. New environmentally friendly frac fluids
need to be developed along with better casing materials, environmentally friendly
drilling muds, and a better understanding of transport and rheology required for more
effective cementing techniques. It will require evaluation of big data sets and the
associated security problems with managing those data sets, and implementing them
in a systems approach when laying out hydraulic fracing fields/arrays. Responsible
hydraulic fracturing will require solutions to the so-called energy food nexus, which
in turn requires environmentally sound and technology-friendly water, food, and
energy laws, which will only come through research and education. To solve complex
societal and technological problems such as these will necessitate multidisciplinary
teams from industry, academia, and the government working together to develop the
science, technology, and laws necessary to obtain a sustainable future for us all. A
necessary first step will be to educate tomorrow’s workforce to face the challenges
and opportunities presented by water in general and fracturing in particular. Water
is the universe’s most precious resource, and it is a critical piece in the puzzle for a
sustainable, productive, and healthy world.
Al Sacco
Edward E. Whitacre College of Engineering
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, Texas
Prologue
High-volume hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling are groundbreaking tech-
nological breakthroughs of the twenty-first century that have greatly advanced the
energy security of the United States. These developments are on par with other
extraordinary human technological achievements, such as space travel and digi-
tal revolution. It has not only helped the United States become the world’s largest
natural gas producer, but it is also transforming the economy by creating jobs and
revitalizing the chemical and manufacturing sectors of the economy. Natural gas
availability has reduced our reliance on less environmentally friendly fuels, and it
is a major factor in reducing the emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases. The United States had the largest reduction in carbon dioxide emissions from
fossil fuel consumption of all the countries in the world between 2006 and 2011 due
mainly to the availability of natural gas. Unconventional oil and gas production is a
vital bridge in our transition to greener renewable energies.
Hydraulic fracturing is a complex engineering endeavor carried out under high
pressure and temperature. Inadequate designs and improper operations can have
catastrophic consequences. Safety is therefore of paramount importance. It is also
a material-intensive operation that requires relatively large quantities of water and
sand that often have to be transported over large distances. Many shale plays are
located in rural areas with intensive agricultural activities and in semiarid environ-
ments where water is at a premium. Our quest for energy independence must not
come at the cost of food security. Innovative water management methods that reduce
the freshwater footprint and minimize waste generation are therefore of great impor-
tance. A variety of chemicals are used for, and generated due to, hydraulic fractur-
ing. Improper handling and inappropriate disposal of these chemicals increase the
risks to human health and the environment. The subsurface environment is highly
heterogeneous, and some products of fracturing (e.g., methane) can be generated
from other sources as well. State-of-the-art analytical methods are therefore neces-
sary to accurately characterize the risks arising from hydraulic fracturing operations.
Clearly, public policy must be grounded in best scientific principles. Policy planners
and regulators must comprehend what technologies can do and where they are in
need of improvements. By the same token, engineers and scientists must understand
political pressures and public perceptions, in order to ensure that their solutions are
pragmatic and implementable. This can only happen when traditional, discipline-
specific silos are dismantled to create a multidisciplinary outlook that is focused on
a comprehensive solution.
This book represents a seminal effort in fostering a multidisciplinary framework
for understanding and assessing the impacts of hydraulic fracturing in a holistic
manner. The editors have done an excellent job in assembling a diverse team of
vii
viii Prologue
experts ranging from engineers, scientists, and communication researchers from
both industry and academia to address various issues, challenges, and opportunities
for development associated with this game-changing technology. The book will
therefore appeal to a wide range of audiences who would like to get an unbiased and
thorough comprehension of hydraulic fracturing technologies and their impacts on
our environment and society.
Robert V. Duncan
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, Texas
