Hyacinth compost as a source of nutrient for Abelmoschus esculentus

109 Pages·2011·3.93 MB·English

Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 No. 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
(cid:3)
CONTENTS
(cid:3)
S. No. Name Title Page No.
1. E.K.Mohanraj, S.Kandasamy Study on concrete using waste materials by partial replacement of 159-163
and N.Rajkumar aggregates to reduce global warming gases
2. Thapa Bijay and Solid waste management at landfill sites of Nepal 164-166
K.C.Ajay Kumar
3. Vishnu Agarwal, Preetam Design and fabrication of microbial fuel cell for generation of electricity 167-169
Verma, Anil Kumar Mathur,
Ankur Singh, Dhirendra Kumar
and Varun Kumar Yadav
4. S.Prabhakar, V.N.Banugopan, Optimization of esters of nerium biodiesel in a diesel engine 170-172
K.Annamalai and S. Jayaraj
5. R.Sugaraj Samuel and E-learning, the next big name in education 173-176
A. Subhashini
6. Sandeep Singh, Nanoparticle based drug delivery system: Advantages and applications 177-180
Vivek Kumar Pandey,
Ravi Prakash Tewari and
Vishnu Agarwal
7. K.Elampari, Surface ozone air pollution in Nagercoil, India 181-184
T.Chithambarathanu,
R.Krishna Sharmaand
S.Johnson Jeyakumar
8. K.Mohan and Mazher Sultana Studies on serum lipids, lipoproteins and high sensitive 185-191
C-Reactive protein in type 2 diabetes
9. P.S.Syed Shabudeen Impact upon the Indian socio-economic fronts by climate change 192-196
10. S.Subathra, Mazher Sultana Collagenolytic activity of serine protease of Perionyx excavatus 197-200
and Gnanamani
11. S.R.Sheeja Major trends and issues in the field of distance education 201-203
12. A.P.Palanichamy Global warming-Green house effect 204-206
13. S.Kothainayaki and Webometric analysis of agricultural universities in India 207-214
S.Gopalakrishnan
14. Gopal Upadhyaya and Fuzzy logic based model for monitoring air quality index 215-218
Nilesh Dashore
15. P.H.Roop Ganesh Global warming/green house effect 219-222
16. M.Venkataramanan, Knowledge management through distance education 223-225
T.S.Prema and S.V.Nandini
17. M.Venkataramanan and Smitha Causes and effects of global warming 226-229
18. S.S.Swaminathan Impact of global warming on the insect pest status on plants 230-235
19. N.C.J.Packia Lekshmi and Hyacinth compost as a source of nutrient for Abelmoschus esculentus 236-239
S.Viveka
20. Prashant Shrivastava Water quality assessment and its impact on human health: 240-244
A case study of somni stream watershed patan block, Durg district,
Chhattisgarh
21. M.Ramesh Kumar and Export and import pattern of medicinal plants in India 245-248
D.Janagam
22. C.Mayakrishnan Demand side management of electrical energy efficiency and 249-254
environmental sustainability in India
23. U.S.Shoba and S.Gouri Digitisation of clinical information in the health sector-Impediments and 255-258
solutions–An overview
Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 No. 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
24. A.Duraisamy and S. Latha Impact of pollution on marine environment -A case study of coastal 259-262
Chennai
25. R.Balamurugan, A critical view on the impact of constitution of India as 263-265
S.Inbakumar and internal regulatory mechanism for environmental issues and policies
R.G.Sethuraman
26. D.B.Panaskar and Effect of textile mill effluent on growth of Vigna unguiculata and 266-272
R.S.Pawar Pisum sativum seedlings
27. D.B.Panaskar and R.S.Pawar Effect of textile mill effluent on growth of Sorghum vulgare and 273-278
Vigna aconitifolia seedlings
28. Padmini Rangarajan Educative and interactive puppet plays addressing ‘environmental 279-281
issues and creating awareness in rural community-A case study of
Mahaboobnagar district, Andhra Pradesh
29. Padmini Rangarajan Religious agencies, sweet shops and lower class group vendors as ‘role 282-284
model’ in awareness building with respect to
growing urbanization
30. K.Sanghamitra, Heavy metal tolerance of weed species and their accumulations by 285-290
P.V.V. Prasada Rao and phytoextraction
G.R.K.Naidu
31. R.Oum Kumari Power crisis in Rajasthan: Strategies to attain sustainable 291-294
development
32. Amol Sawale and Coastal resource management 295-297
Malay Mahadevia
33. J.Maheswari Patenting Indian medicinal plants and products 298-301
34. D.Janagam, A.Saravana Kumar Biodiesel: The alternative fuel for new era 302-307
and R.sathiya
D.Janagam, B.Suresh and
35. Efficiency of task based learning and traditional teaching on 308-312
S.Nagarathinam
self-regulated education
36. D.Janagam and M.Jeyamani E-Waste–a major threat to environment and health 313-317
37. R.Parimalavalli and S.Radhaisri Glycaemic index of stevia product and its efficacy on blood glucose 318-321
level in type 2 diabetes
38. N.Thirunavukkarasu, Need of coastal resource management in Pulicat Lake–challenges ahead 322-326
S.Gokulakrishnan,
P.V.R.Premjothi and
R.Moses Inbaraj
39. P.Kumar, S.Kumar, Titanium dioxide photocatalysis for the pulp and paper industry 327-332
N.K.Bhardwaj and S.Kumar wastewater treatment
40. R.Basavaraju, Plant tissue culture-Agriculture and health of man 333-335
41. V.N.S.Malleswar and Biomarker for environmental stress induced aestivation 336-338
S.Krupanidhi
42. A.Vanitha, A.Premkumar, A first report on isolation of DNA in Bryocladia thwaitesii 339-342
S.Chandra and R.Tamil selvi (Harvey ex J.Agardh) Detoni (red alga) using Nano vue UV
spectrophotometer suitable for molecular biological studies
43. V. Renuka Devi and Economics of pollution control 343-347
Anita Pratibha Revathi Moses
44. J.S.Sindhu Potential impacts of climate change on agriculture 348-353
45. C.Venu Views of Swami Vivekananda on human values in modern education 354-354
46. Sivanandi Rajadurai and Environmental accountability for a sustainable Earth 355-360
Prasanti Raveendran
47. Chandra Venkatasubramanian Nutritional quality and acceptability of organic and 361-365
onventional foods
48. Chandra Venkatasubramanian, Effect of dehydrated Salacia prinoides on experimental mice and on 366-372
Rathi Devi and E.Rohini NIDDM subjects
159
Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 issue 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
Study on concrete using waste materials by partial replacement of aggregates to
reduce global warming gases
E. K. Mohanraj1, S. Kandasamy2 and N. Rajkumar1
1Dept. of Civil Engg., School of Building & Mechanical Sciences, Kongu Engg. College, Erode-638 052, TN, India
2Anna University of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Ariyalur Campus, Ariyalur - 621 713, TN, India
[email protected]
Abstract
The climate change due to global warming is one of the greatest environmental issues we face now. The green
house gases including CO are released during cement and steel manufacturing process. In order to reduce the
2
amount of green house gases, an attempt has been made to reuse the waste materials along with concrete in
construction industries. In recent years, attempts have been made to increase the utilization of fly ash, quarry dust,
granite and construction and demolition debris to partially replace the use of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate in
concrete are gathering momentum. This paper presents information on fly ash, granite and quarry dust based
concrete, material and the mixture proportions, the manufacturing process, and the influence of various parameters
on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete with plain concrete and partial replacement of fine aggregate by fly-
ash and quarry dust and coarse aggregate by granite and C & D debris concrete. The column specimens were tested
under axial compression to investigate the effects of waste materials. Since the materials used were locally available
waste materials, a detailed characterization was planned. In this paper, an attempt was made to utilize the waste
materials by effectively recycling and filling in steel tubular circular columns with recycled aggregate concrete instead
of conventional concrete. An empirical equation for calculating the design load carrying capacity of the composite
column was developed using the experimental results. The test results were compared with the international codes
and new theoretical models were suggested for the design. In this paper, experimental and analytical investigations
were carried out to study the strength and behaviour of CFST columns over the entire range of loading. The ultimate
loads and behaviour of CFST were compared with those of the hollow steel tube columns. From these elaborative
experimental and analytical investigations that were done, it is concluded that out of all the waste materials used, the
contribution of C & D debris and quarry dust are significant. The remaining materials that include fly-ash and granite
are reasonably contributed in the performance enhancement under axial loading conditions. Finally, it is concluded
that materials recovered from various waste stream are suitable to be used as secondary aggregates in concrete.
The advantage of using such waste materials provides generally a low cost construction than using virgin aggregates
and the elimination of the need for waste disposal in landfills. Utilization of these waste materials in concrete leads to
an effective solid waste management technique and will also be cost effective. The exploitation of available natural
resources and raw materials required for the construction industries can also be reduced which in turn reduces the
release of green house gases which causes global warming.
Keywords: Fly-ash, recycled aggregate concrete, granite, waste management, global warming.
Introduction concrete institute’s (ACI) code is quite different from the
Steel members have the advantages of high tensile Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method
strength and ductility, while concrete members have the suggested by the American institute of steel
advantages of high compressive strength and stiffness. construction’s (AISC).
Composite members combine steel and concrete, Notation
resulting in a member that has the beneficial qualities of D-outside diameter of column
both materials. The two main types of composite column t-wall thickness of steel tube
are the steel-reinforcement concrete column (Fig. 1), N ultimate axial load of composite column
EC4-
which consists of a steel section encased in reinforced N ultimate squash load
ACI/AS-
or unreinforced concrete, and the concrete-filled steel As-area of steel tube
tubular (CFST) columns (Fig. 2), which consists of a Ac-area of concrete
steel tube filled with concrete. CFST columns have f characteristics cube compressive strength of
cc-
many advantages over steel-reinforcement concrete concrete
columns. Although CFST columns are suitable for all tall f cylinder compressive strength of concrete (0.8 times
cy-
buildings in high seismic regions, their use has been of f )
cc
limited due to a lack of information about the true (cid:454) co-efficient of confinement for concrete
1-
strength and the inelastic behaviour of CFST members. (cid:454) co-efficient of confinement for steel
2-
Due to the traditional separation between structural Past research: Experimental research on CFST
steel and reinforced concrete design, the procedure for columns has been ongoing worldwide for many
the designing CFST column using the American decades, with significant contribution having been made
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Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 issue 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
particularly by researchers in Australia, Europe and confinement occurs for axially loaded thin-walled steel
Asia. The vast majority of these experiments have been with only the concrete loaded and the steel tube used as
on moderate scale specimens (less than 200 mm in pure circumferential restraints. EC4 has been shown to
dia.) using normal and high-strength concrete. Neogi et provide the best method for estimating the strength of
al. (1969) investigated numerically the elasto-plastic circular CFSTs with the concrete and steel loaded
behaviour of pin-ended, CFST columns loaded either simultaneously. For axially loaded thin-walled steel
concentrically or eccentrically about one axis. It was tubes, local buckling of the steel tube does not occur if
assumed complete interaction between the steel and there is sufficient bond between the steel and concrete.
concrete, triaxial and biaxial effects were not For concrete strength up to 80 MPa, EC4 can be used
considered. Eighteen eccentric loaded columns were with no reduction for local buckling. For concrete
tested, in order to compare the experimental results with strength in excess 80 MPa, EC4 can still be used but
the numerical solutions. The conclusions were that there with no enhancement of the internal concrete
was a good agreement between the experimental and confinement and no reduction in the steel strength from
theoretical behaviour of columns with L/D ratios greater local buckling and biaxial effects from confinement.
than 15, inferred that triaxial effects were small for such Thin-walled circular axial compression and moment can
columns. Where for columns with smaller L/D ratios, it be designed using the EC4 with no reduction for local
showed some gain in strength due to triaxial effect. A buckling.
series of tests had been carried out by (O’Shea &
Bridge, 1996) on the behaviour of circular thin-walled
steel tubes. The tubes had diameter to thickness D/t Fig. 1. Concrete encased composite columns.
ranging between 55 and 200. The tests included; bare
steel tubes, tubes with un-bonded concrete with only the
steel section loaded, tubes with concrete in filled with
the steel and concrete loaded simultaneously and tubes
with the concrete infill loaded alone. The test strengths
were compared to strength models in design standards
and specification. The results from the tests showed that Fig. 2. Concrete filled composite columns.
the concrete infill for the thin-walled circular steel tubes
has little effects on the local buckling strength of the
steel tubes.
Kilpatrick et al. (1997) examined the applicability of
the Eurocode 4 for design of CFSTs which use high-
strength concrete and compare 146 columns from six
Experiments
different investigations with EC4. The concrete strength
A total of eighteen specimens of circular
of columns ranged from 23 to 103 MPa. The mean ratio
(designated C) sections were tested for this study. All
of measured/predicted column strength was 1.10 with a
specimens were tested with strength of concrete as 20
standard deviation of 0.13. The EC4 safely predicted the
MPa and a D/t ratio 23.78. The columns were 76.1 mm
failure load in 73% of the column analyzed. Brauns
in diameter and 300, 600 and 900 mm in length. The
(1998) stated that the effect of confinement exists at
column specimens were classified into six different
high stress level when structural steel acts in tension
groups. Each group consists of six specimens filled with
and concrete in compression and that the ultimate limit
plain concrete (designated P), partial replacement of
state material strength was not attained for all parts
fine aggregate by 10% fly-ash (designated FA) and 40%
simultaneously. In his study, the basis of constitutive
quarry dust (designated QD) and coarse aggregates by
relationships for material components, the stress state
25% granite (designated G) and 25% construction and
in composite columns was determined taking into
demolition debris (designated CD). The rest of the
account the dependence of the modulus of elasticity and
column specimens were tested as hollow sections for
Poisson’s ratio on the stress level in concrete.
comparison (designated H). All the specimen properties
O’Shea and Bridge (2000) tried to estimate the
are given in Table 1. All the specimens were fabricated
strength of CFSTs under different loading condition with
from circular hollow steel tube and filled with five types
small eccentricities. All the specimens were short with a
of concrete. The average values of yield strength and
length-to-diameter ratio of 3.5 and a diameter thickness
ultimate tensile strength for the steel tube were found to
ratio between 60 and 220. The internal concrete had a
be 260 and 320 MPa respectively. In the present
compressive strength of 50, 80 and 120 MPa. From
experimental work, the parameters of the test
those experiments O’Shea and Bridge concluded that
specimens are the size of specimen, strength of
the degree of confinement offered by a thin-walled
concrete and L/D ratio of columns. In order to prevent
circular steel tube to the internal concrete is dependent
upon the loading condition. The greatest concrete
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Table 1. Specimen properties.
Table 2. Concrete properties.
Table 3. Comparison of load carrying capacity with existing.
code.
Table 4. Values of k for different L/D ratio.
Table 5. Comparison of test results with proposed equation.
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the steel hollow column section from local buckling, ACI as in the case of second set of specimens with L/D ratio
required the width-to-thickness (B/t) ratio of the steel of 7.88 the N values increases ranges from 18 to 58%
test
hollow section not greater than the following limit: for and the third set of specimens with large L/D ratio (11.8)
76.1 mm dia the B/t is 23.78 < (cid:165)(3Es/f ) = 48.04. The the N values increases ranges from 37 to 67%. Hence
y test
concrete mix was obtained using the following dosages: the strength of infill concrete and L/D ratio influences the
3.75 kN/m3 of Portland cement, 5.23 kN/m3 of sand, critical load carrying capacity. The N , and N loads
EC4 test
11.62 kN/m3 of coarse aggregate with maximum size 12 of various infill concrete materials is presented in Fig 4.
mm, and 0.192 m3 of water. Fly-ash (waste from Mettur It is observed that the EC4 equation provides a good
Thermal plant), quarry dust (waste from crusher), prediction of load carrying capacity of concrete filled
granite (waste pieces from granite composite column. But a
Fig. 3. Test set up of concrete filled
industries) and C&D debris (construction comparison with ACI/AS codal
steel tubular column in UTM.
& demolition debris) by weight basis are equation shows that the equation
taken. In order to characterize the under estimates the critical load
mechanical behaviour of concrete, three carrying capacity of columns
cubic, three prismatic and three varying up to 4 to 72%. This
cylindrical specimens were prepared observation were also made by
from each concrete and tested. The researchers (Giakoumelis & Lam,
mean values of the strength related 2004) hence they proposed a
properties of concrete at an age of 28 modified equation as N = 1.3
ACI/AS
days are summarized in Table 2. A f + A f . Fig. 5 shows the
c cc s y
comparison of test results with
Test setup and procedure ACI/AS and the modified ACI/AS
All the tests were carried out in an equation.
Electronic UTM of a capacity 1000 kN.
The columns were hinged at both ends Test results and discussions
and axial compressive load applied as The tests were conducted on
shown in Fig. 3. A pre-load of about 5 kN 18 specimens with different L/D
was applied to hold the specimen ratio of 3.94 (cid:167) 4.0, 7.88 (cid:167) 8.0 &
upright. Dial gauges were used to 11.8 (cid:167) 12.0 and also with infilling of
measure the lateral and longitudinal deformations of the plain concrete and partial replacement of fine aggregate
columns. The load was applied in small increments of by flyash & quarry dust and coarse aggregate by granite
20 kN. At each load increment, the deflection at centre and C&D debris. The test results were given in fig. 4 &
was recorded. All specimens were loaded up to failure. 5. Fig. 4 & 5 compares the relationship between
Comparison with Eurocode 4 (EC4), ACI 318-95 (ACI) compressive strength of concrete to strength of column
and Australian standards AS 3600 & AS 4100 (AS) predicted by EC4, ACI/AS, modified ACI/AS and
EC4 is the most recently completed international experimental test results. From the Fig. 4 and Table 3 it
standard in composite construction. EC4 covers was observed that EC4 and ACI/AS under estimate the
concrete-encased and partially encased steel sections strength of column but modified ACI/AS is well
and concrete-filled sections with or without correlating with experimental results (L/D=12) and
reinforcement. EC4 uses limit state concepts to achieve hence N = 1.3 A f + A f is applicable for steel
ACI/AS c cc s y
the aims of serviceability and safety by applying partial tubular section in-filled with concrete. Also, it was
safety factor to load and material properties. EC4 is the noticed that all the codal provisions under estimating the
only code that treats the effects of long-term loading strength of column about 5-40%. It is found that, when
separately. The ultimate axial force of a column is N L/D ratio reduces, the predicted strength also reduces.
EC4
= A f (cid:454) + A f (1+ (cid:454) (t f / D f )). The ACI and AS use
sy 2 ccc 1 y cy
Fig. 4. Comparison of test result with EC4.
the same formula for calculating the squash load.
EC4
Neither code takes into consideration the concrete Test result
confinement. The limiting thickness of steel tube to 400
prevent local buckling is based on achieving yield stress
300
in a hollow steel tube under monotonic axial loading
N)
wcohmicTphho esisi t seqn cuooat lsuahm nlnoe.a c de siss adreyt erremqiunieredm beyn Nt for a n= 0in.8-f5ill eAd Axial load (k200
ACI/AS c
100
f + A f .Detailed comparisons of load carrying capacity
cc s y
of composite columns are presented in Table 3. For the
0
first set of specimens having small L/D ratio (3.94) is the
C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18
increase in value of N ranges from 22 to 70%. Where Reference column
test
Proceedings of the “Global Environmental and its sustainability: Implications and Strategies” held at Chennai, India (7th Nov.2010) & Bangkok, Thailand (25th-29th Nov.2010)
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Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 issue 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
In EC4 code, the difference between predicted and in CFST columns is more than that of plain
actual strength is 5-25% only because the slenderness concrete.
effect has been considered. But in ACI/AS, the (cid:153) Excellent prediction was achieved for C9, C11, C14 -
difference is upto 40% because there is no C18 CFST columns, with N /modified N ratio
test ACI/AS
consideration for slenderness effect or L/D ratio. Hence around unity.
this equation may be hold good for L/D > 12 some factor From the above conclusions, it is evident that the
should be multiplied with the existing ACI/As equation to waste materials like flyash, quarry dust, C&D debris can
predict the exact strength. be used in construction which reduces the use of virgin
In this study, from experimental results, a factor kk is materials. This in turn helps in reducing the releasing of
suggested for different L/D ratios and the values of kkare green house gases due to man made activities. This
tabulated below in Table 4. Now the equation is slightly may possibly helps us to reduce the global warming to a
modified by multiplying a factor ‘‘k’. considerable extent.
The proposed equation for short column is Acknowledgements
N = kk [0.85 A f + A f ] ------- (1) The authors thank Department of Science and
ACI/AS c cc s y
To evaluate the proposed equation three columns of Technology and All India Council for Technical
different dimensions have been tested and compared Education, New Delhi for financial supports also,
with predicted results and the results are tabulated Principal and Management of Kongu Engineering
(Table 5). From Table 5 it was found that proposed College for extending facilities for this research work.
equation gives almost same strength obtained by References
1. ACI Committee 318 (1995) Building code
Fig. 5. Comparison of test result with ACI/AS & modified ACI/AS.
requirements for structural concrete (ACI 318-95).
ACI/AS
Modified ACI/AS Detroit: American concrete institute.
Test result
400 2. Australian standards AS3600 & AS4100 (1994)
Reinforced concrete structures & steel structures.
300 Sydney: standards Australia.
N)
Axial Load (k200 3. SBcotreaneuclrn eRst ees-Jf.i l4le(91d(9 29)s,8 t1)e 8e9lA -n1ca9ol6ylu.s mis n.o fJ . strCeosnss trsutacttieo nainl
100 4. Eurocode 4 (1994) DD ENV 1994-1-1, Design of
composite steel and concrete structures. Part 1.1,
0 General rules and rules for buildings (with UK
C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 national application document). London, British
Reference Column
standards institution.
experimental result.
5. Giakoumelis G and Lam D (2004) Axial capacity of
Conclusions
circular concrete-filled tube columns, J.
The results obtained from the tests on composite
Constructional Steel Res. Proc. 60, 1049-1068.
columns presented in this paper allow the following
6. Kilpatrick A and Rangan BV (1997) Behaviour of
conclusions to be drawn.
high-strength composite column. In: Composite
(cid:153) The predicted axial strengths using EC4 were
construction conventional and innovate, Austria. 789-
maximum of 26% lower than the results obtained
794.
from experiments (C10).
7. Kilpatrick A and Taylor T (1997) Application of
(cid:153) The predicted axial strengths using ACI/AS were
Eurocode 4 design provisions to high strength
maximum of 42% lower than the results obtained
composite columns. In: Composite construction
from experiments (C4).
conventional and innovate, Austria, 561-566.
(cid:153) ACI/AS equation gives better results for long
8. Neogi PK (1969) Concrete-filled tubular steel
columns of L/D > 12.
columns under eccentric loading. Structural Engg.
(cid:153) For L/D < 12, modified equation is proposed with the
47(5), 195-197.
multiplying factor ‘‘k’.
9. O’ Shea M and Bridge R (1996) Circular thin-walled
(cid:153) k values are suggested for different L/D ratio varying
tubes with high strength concrete infill. Composite
from 4 to 12.
construction in steel and concrete II, Germany,
(cid:153) The strength of steel tubular columns in-filled with
ASCE, pp780-793.
concrete is about 150 to 162 % of hollow columns.
10.O’ Shea M and Bridge R (2000) Design of circular
(cid:153) The strength of CFSTs with partial replacement of
thin-walled concrete filled steel tubes. J. Structural
fine and coarse aggregate by waste materials is
Engg. ASCE, Proc. 126, 1295-1303.
almost same as that of plain concrete.
11.Shanmugam NE and Lakshmi B (2001) State of the
(cid:153) The strength of partial replacement of quarry dust as
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Constructional Steel Res. 1041-1080.
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Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 issue 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
Solid waste management at landfill sites of Nepal
Thapa Bijay and K. C. Ajay Kumar
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The waste management practice in sanitary landfill sites (SLF) is a deciding factor for the assessment of
environmental impacts such as littering, odor, groundwater, surface water and soil contamination. This article
focuses on the types of waste coming to landfill and existing waste management practices followed at sanitary landfill
sites of Nepal. The study was carried out at Sisdole, Pokhara and Karaute Danda sanitary landfill site of Nepal. The
waste composition was performed and minute particles were sent to lab to test the composition. Waste management
practice was observed at field and by interviewing key informants. The organic composition of waste were found high
as 61.86%, 49.12% and 65.81% at Sisdole, Pokhara and Karaute Danda landfill sites respectively. The presence of
heavy metals like lead, chromium and nickel reveals that the landfill is contaminated with industrial wastes as well.
The waste management practices at Karaute Danda landfill site was better compared to other two sites, where
sorting, composting and selling of recyclable and reusable wastes are done.
Keywords: Waste management practice, sanitary landfill sites, recyclable, reusable wastes.
Introduction segregation house, composting unit and collection
With the enactment of local self-governance act in house of plastic and paper. No liners and perforated
1999, municipalities are the responsible authorities for pipes are used at the landfill site (source: Gorahi
the management of solid waste generated in the municipality).
municipalities. Most of the municipalities are opting for The various impacts caused due to improper waste
open dumping near river banks or on open areas. management at landfill site includes: fatal accidents,
Though the government of Nepal is promoting the infrastructure damage pollution of the local environment,
concept of 3R, solid waste disposal to landfill is offgassing of methane generated by decaying organic
considered an important and most likely SWM strategy wastes, harbouring of disease vectors such as rats and
(Thapa et al., 2009). This has lead to building up plans flies, particularly from improperly operated landfills,
of few more landfill sites in urban areas in near future. At which are common in Third-world countries, injuries to
present, there are only three operating sanitary landfill wildlife, and simple nuisance problems(Wikipedia).
sites and they all are only for collecting municipal and Methodology
household wastes (Thapa et al., 2009). Sampling: For the composition Study, 7% of the
Sisdole landfill site: The landfill site (excluding the waste vehicles coming to the sites were considered and
processing plant of 5 ha) covers a total area of 15ha, out sample of about 50 kg from each vehicle was taken. The
of which the actual landfill area cover 2 ha, site samples were put on the plastic mat so that no wetting
protection/ buffer zone covers 12 ha, and the rest 1 ha is effect was observed. The fractional minute particles
covered by other facilities for waste management. The remained after the composition was sampled for lab
landfill consists of two valleys. The first valley is 11200 analysis at Vishwas lab, Kathmandu.
sq. meters with a volume capacity of 166085 cum and Data acquisition from concerned authorities:Different
second valley is 9501 sq. meters with a volume capacity data were acquired from different concerned authorities
of 108910 sq. meters (source: Kathmandu Metropolitan of both landfill sites and municipality office. The
City). population and growth rate, information of landfill’s
Pokhara sanitary landfill site: The total area of the waste management practice such as soil cover,
landfill site is 10 ha, with 4 ha for landfilling, 1.5 ha for compaction were acquired from landfill’s supervisors
leachate treatment facility. 3.75 ha of buffer zone, and municipality office.
internal road and other infrastructure and 0.75 ha of Composition study of the waste: Composition study of
compositing unit, yet to be commenced. The terrain the waste was done using the waste reduction method.
longitudinal slope along east to west is of about 2% and In this method, the waste sampling waste is divided into
about 3% along north to south (source: Pokhara four quarters, from which, the diagonal are taken and
municipality). remaining diagonal is removed. Then it is thoroughly
Karaute Danda sanitary landfill site: The total area of mixed. Again the similar process is done, on which the
landfill site is 20 ha. Only 1 ha land has been utilized for composition study is conducted. The wastes were
waste management while rest of the land is used for segregated as organic waste, plastics, paper, glass,
fruits and tree plantation. The landfill site shall not be rubber/leather, textile, metal, construction and
considered a sanitary landfill site as the landfill site is demolition waste and others (having less economic
not engineered, though there is the provision of waste value).
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Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 issue 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
Data analysis and interpretation: The quantification of sorting of the waste. Certain wastes like paper,
survey was conducted assuming the density of the plastic, glasses and metals having economic value are
waste to be 300 kg/m3 for un-compacted vehicle and sorted and sold by locals, with no economic gain for
550 kg/m3 for compacters data from municipality were landfill sites. At Karaute Danda LFS, the waste is sorted
used to calculate the per capita waste contribution to the after unloading from the vehicle at the transfer station
landfill. Apart from that composition surveys, data and built at the landfill area itself. The paper and plastics are
lab results of leachate, minute fractional particles of separated that is sold in the market since 2009. The
composition were also analyzed and interpreted. practice of composting has been started. The compost
Results and discussion from the landfill site is sold for Rs. 300 per 10 cu.ft (280
As per our quantification and composition survey litres) load. Plastic and rubber are sold for Rs.13/kg
conducted at the site, the results are shown in Table 1. (Ghorahi municipality, 2008 data) becoming the source
The figures in Table 1 show that the percentage of of income for the Ghorahi municipality for solid waste
organic content of solid waste is relatively greater in all management. There seems to be dominant problem of
three landfills with the least percentage of 49.12 at litter and odor at Sisdole LFS, there is a slight problem
Pokhara SLF. Glass, plastics, rubber and leather and at Pokhara but there is very less dominant litter and
textile were relatively higher in composition at Pokhara odor problem at Karaute Danda LFS (Table 3).
SLF. This may be due to the majority of tourists at the Conclusion
city consuming more packed foods. Organic, plastic and The composition of waste coming to LFS was seen
paper content of the waste are higher at all the landfill. mostly to be consisting of organic waste averaging
Table 1. Composition of solid waste at Sisdole, 60.07% so the provision of segregation and reuse of
Pokhara & Karaute Danda LFS organic waste by composting and anaerobic digestion
Karaute and recycling of paper and plastic can be the source of
Sisdole Pokhara
Danda
LFS LFS revenue and aid in increasing life of landfill site. The
LFS
waste consists of 10.27% of paper, 12.04% plastics and
Total waste disposal
353.5 61.9 6.96 some amount of metals. The study revealed that
(Ton/day)
practice till date of waste management at site is well
Waste contribution to landfill
0.3 0.255 0.12 managed at Karaute Danda landfill site in terms of
(kg/person/day)
Organic (%) 61.86 49.12 65.81 waste segregation and earning by selling the reusable
Plastic (%) 12 12.71 8.42 items but the manual sorting of the waste can lead to
Paper (%) 10.34 9.67 12.24 the health hazard of the scavengers. Though the
Glass (%) 3.31 5.6 3.06 municipalities are claiming to be accepting only the
Rubber & leather (%) 0.83 4.17 0.37 municipal and HH waste but the lab analysis and field
Textile (%) 5.28 7.59 3.83 analysis verified that there is still contamination of
Construction & medical and industrial wastes in all landfill site. This can
3.98 4.5 4.59
Demolition Waste (%) also lead to ground water and surface water
Metals (%) 0.21 1.14 0.15 contamination, soil contamination and also can be a
Others (%) 2.2 5.5 1.53
serious health threat to scavengers. Though the practice
of landfill mining has started in many countries, dumping
The laboratory results of minute fraction after
of all the waste can be considered as dumping the
composition survey is shown in Table 2.The lab analysis
resource of the nation.
of the minute fraction confirms that there is the presence
Table 2. Laboratory results of minute fractions of solid
of nickel, chromium, lead and copper. Since there is no
waste at landfills
provision of proper checking of wastes entering at LFS,
Observed values (%)
all the wastes were directly filled at the site. Besides the Parameters
Sisdole Pokhara Ghorahi
municipal solid waste, wastes from the hospitals and
Moisture(%) 35.3 23.6 28.6
some industries were also entering the site. Even in our
Organic matters (%) 22.43 9.12 18.32
limited volume of composition survey; we found
Total nitrogen (%) 0.87 0.63 0.73
syringes, medicinal expired tablets and bottles, Total phosphorous(%) 0.192 0.077 0.153
industrial throw-outs in large volumes in all landfill sites. Lead (μg/g) 16.72 18.99 25.92
This can be a serious threat to the workers regarding Cadmium (μg/g) 3.24 <1.25 <1.25
safety. Similarly, some scavengers are found to be Nickel (μg/g) 16.47 14.99 14.95
working at Sisdole LFS and Pokhara LFS near the Chromium (μg/g) 5.74 4.06 4.98
operating compactors, which can lead to accidents. Copper (μg/g) 185.70 185.0 343.51
At Sisdole and Pokhara LFS, the waste is unloaded Potassium (μg/g) 164.72 389.73 164.47
from the vehicles at the site and covered with the soil.
The land filling type is area method. There is no practice
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Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 4 issue 3 (March 2011) ISSN: 0974- 6846
References
Table 3. Waste management practices at three landfills.
Karaute
Parameters Sisdole LFS Pokhara LFS
Danda LFS 1. Bhandari K (2009) Interview with Mr.
Sorting at site No No Yes Khem Bdr. Bhandari of Pokhara Sub-
Provision of composting No Metropolitan City, Pokhara, Nepal.
No Yes
(in future plan) 2. JICA (2004) Detailed design for
Provision of selling
development of semi-aerobic system pilot
reusable & recyclable No No Yes
project at Sisdole landfill site (vol. I),
waste
Lalitpur, Nepal: East Consult. (P.) Ltd.
Land filling type Area Area Area
3. Kansakar DR (2009) Interview with Mr.
Provision of spreading chain dozer Chain dozer Manually
Dipak Ratna Kansakar of Sisdole Landfill
Provision of compaction Yes Yes No
Site, Nuwakot, Nepal.
Soil cover provision Yes Yes Yes
Soil cover 2-4 inch 2-4 inch 2-4 inch 4. Oli D and Shahi A (2009) Interview with
Littering problem Dominant Slight No Mr. Dipendra Oli, legal advisor and Ashok
Odor problem Dominant Slight No Shahi, Engineer of SWMRMC, Lalitpur,
Industrial contamination Yes Yes Yes Nepal.
Medical contamination Yes Yes Yes 5. Regmi S (2009) Interview with Mr. Subodh
Regmi, Environmental Officer, Ghorahi Municipality,
Acknowledgements Ghorahi, Nepal.
We would like to sincerely thank Mr. Dinesh Raj 6. Resham GC (2009) Interview with Mr. Resham GC
Manandhar and Prof. Dr. Sanjay Nath Khanal for their of Pokhara Sanitary Landfill Site, Pokhara, Nepal.
valuable support and assistance during our work. We 7. Thapa B, Sapkota L and Khanal P (2009) Waste
are grateful to Mr. Hem Raj Khattri and Mr. Bobby Kafle, management and leachate treatment at landfill
Kathmandu University, Chemistry Department, for their sites of Nepal. Department of environmental
valuable assistance for our lab analysis. We are also science and engineering, Kathmandu
thankful to Mr. Prayash Khanal, KTH, Sweden, Lokesh University, Nepal, pp1-3.
Sapkota, Full Bright Consultancy, Nepal and Mr. Gustav 8. Wikipedia Electronic references. Retrieved on
Larsson and Mr. Jakob Sahlen from Lund University, 29th August, 2010, from
Sweden for being with us and helping us throughout the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill.
whole field works. Dr. Atindra Sapkota, Dr. Bibhuti
Ranjan Jha and all the students of Kathmandu
University, Nepal,
whose assistance during our field work was awesome.
We are also grateful to Mr. Dipendra Oli, legal advisor
and Ashok Shahi, Engineer of SWMRMC. We would like
to acknowledge Mr. Subodh Regmi of Ghorahi
Municipality, Mr. Khem Bdr. Bhandari of Pokhara Sub-
Metropolitan City, Resham GC of Pokhara Sanitary
Landfill Site and Mr. Dipak Ratna Kansakar of Sisdole
Landfill Site for their assistance and valuable
information. We are also very much thankful to Mr.
Ashok Ratna Tuladhar of SchEMS, Nepal and Mr.
Ananta Bahadur Gurung, MD, East Consult (P) Ltd,
Nepal, for providing us with the technical information of
Sisdole and Pokhara LFS.
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(cid:148)Indian Society for Education and Environment (iSee) http://www.indjst.org Indian J.Sci.Technol.