Table Of ContentSixth Edition
Human
Variation
Races, Types,
and Ethnic Groups
STEPHEN MOLNAR
Professor Emeritus
Washington University
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2006, 20 02, 1998, 1992, 1983 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published 2016by Routledge
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ISBN: 9780131927650 (pbk)
Cover Design: Patricia Kelly
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Molnar,Stephen,1931–
Human variation:races,types,and ethnic groups / Stephen Molnar.—6th ed.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-13-192765-5
1. Physical anthropology. 2. Race. I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Anthropology,Physical. 2. Variation (Genetics)
3. Continental Population Groups. 4. Ethnic Groups. QU500M727h 2005]
GN62.8.M64 2005
599.9—dc22
2005032627
To IVA
who worked so hard to make this book possible
Contents
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Biological Diversity and the Race Concept:
An Introduction 1
Human Variation:Its Discovery and Classification,3
Anthropometry:The Measures of Human Variation,8
Eugenics,15
Racial Boundaries:Fact or Fiction?18
Race,Geography,and Origins,24
Confusions and Contradictions of Human Classification,28
Human Biological Variability:A Perspective,32
Chapter 2 The Biological Basis for Human
Variation 33
Principles of Inheritance,34
Formal Human Genetics,46
Factors of Variation and Evolution,54
The Gene,DNA,and the “Code of Life,”63
iv
Contents v
Chromosomes at the Molecular Level,73
Gene Clusters and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
(RFLPs),77
Y-Chromosome DNA Polymorphisms,80
Mitochondrial DNA,81
Genes and Populations:A Summary,83
Chapter 3 Traits of Simple Inheritance I:Blood Groups
and Proteins 85
Blood Components and Inherited Traits,86
The Blood Groups,87
The Blood Groups:An Overview,108
White Blood Cell (WBC) Antigens,109
Polymorphisms of Serum Proteins,113
Inborn Errors of Metabolism,118
Other Polymorphisms of Anthropological Interest,131
Traits of Simple Inheritance:Some Conclusions,133
Chapter 4 Traits of Simple Inheritance II:Hemoglobin
Variants and DNA Markers 134
Hemoglobins:Normal and Abnormal,135
Distribution of Hemoglobin S,141
Malaria and Natural Selection,145
Other Abnormal Hemoglobins,148
The Enzyme G6PD (Glucose 6 Phosphate Dehydrogenase),152
Distribution of Red-Cell Variants in Sardinian Populations,155
Gene Frequency Changes and African Americans,156
DNA Markers of Human Variation,158
Genetic Markers at the DNA Level:Some Conclusions,173
Chapter 5 Traits of Complex Inheritance
and Their Adaptations:I 175
The Structure and Function of Skin,176
Skin Color,Geography,and Natural Selection,182
Skin Color and Evolution,191
Craniofacial Traits,193
Eye Color and Hair Color,203
Human Form and Its Variability,205
Body Size and Form:Perspectives of Heredity,213
vi Contents
Chapter 6 Traits of Complex Inheritance
and Their Adaptations:II 215
Characteristics of Growth and Development,216
Nutritional Influences,234
Adaptation to Cold or Hot Environments,246
High Altitude Environments:Stresses and Responses,257
Conclusions:Complex Traits and Their Adaptations,267
Chapter 7 Human Variability,Behavior,and Racism 269
Race,Nations,and Racism,271
Intelligence Quotient:A Measure of Mental Ability?277
Behavior and Inheritance or Inheritance of Behavior,292
Class and Caste,301
Genetics,Intelligence,and the Future,306
Chapter 8 Distribution of Human Biodiversity 309
Some Factors Contributing to Gene Distribution,311
Races,Ethnic Groups,or Breeding Populations,314
Breeding Populations,325
Clinal Distribution of Traits,337
Breeding Populations versus Clines,340
Chapter 9 Perspectives of Health and Human Diversity:
Influences of the Race Concept 343
Epidemiological Transition:The Distribution and Type of Disease,346
The Developing World and Epidemiological Transitions,359
A New World,but Old Diseases,362
What Is a Race?364
Genes,Races,Environments,and Diseases:Some Conclusions,368
Chapter 10 Changing Dimensions of the Human
Species 370
Population Size and Growth:Historical Perspectives,371
Factors of Population Change,375
Empowerment of Women,383
Fertility Differences and Population Composition,386
Demographic Balances,388
Regional Changes of World Populations,393
Races,Types,and Ethnic Groups:Where Are We? 398
Contents vii
References 402
Glossary 420
Index 425
FIGURES
Figure Title Page
1-1 A Classification of Apes and Humans 5
1-2 Representative Skull Shapes Viewed from Above 10
1-3 Polar-Projection Map of the world Showing the Limits of Nine
Geographical Races Described by Garn (1961) 20
1-4 Models of Human Origins 26
1-5 Racial Classifications according to U.S.Census of 2000 31
2-1 Independent Segregation:Mendel’s First Law 35
2-2 Independent Assortment:Mendel’s Second Law 36
2-3 Stages of Cell Division 38
2-4 Crossover of X-Chromosome Fragments during Meiosis 41
2-5 Human Chromosomes in Mitosis 44
2-6 X- and Y-Chromosomes 45
2-7 Examples of X-Linked Inheritance 48
2-8 Dominant Inheritance:Examples of Abnormal Traits 50
2-9 Inheritance of ABO Blood Types 51
2-10 Recessive Inheritance:Examples of Abnormal Traits. 52
2-11 Skin-Color Distributions of Blacks and Whites 53
2-12a Nucleotide Structure,the Basic Unit of the DNA Molecule 65
2-12b Schematic Diagram Depicting the Ladderlike Arrangement of DNA 66
2-12c Helical Shape of DNA Molecule and Semiconservative Replication 67
2-13 Amino Acid Sequences of Three Types of Beta Globin 68
2-14 Transcription of DNA and the Synthesis of Messenger RNA (mRNA) 70
2-15 Formation of Polypeptide Chains 72
2-16 DNA and Chromosome Structure 74
2-17 DNA Fragment Separation by the Southern Blotting Technique 75
2-18a Diagram of the Beta Globin Gene of Human Hemoglobin 78
2-18b Diagram of the Beta Globin Gene Cluster 79
3-1 Blood Components 86
3-2 Diagram of Antibodies–Antigen Reactions 87
3-3 Basic Chemical Structure for the ABO Blood Group 91
3-4 Synthesis of ABH Chemical Structure 92
3-5 ABO Blood Group Distribution 93
viii Contents
3-6 ABO Incompatibility Leads to Fixation of the O Allele 95
3-7 Distribution of Blood Type B in India 99
3-8 Reaction of an Rh-Negative Mother to Her Rh-Positive Fetus 103
3-9 Percentage Frequency of Blood-Type Allele r (Rh negative) 105
3-10 Relative Electrophoretic Mobilities of Protein Constituents
of Human Serum 114
3-11 Diagramatic Representation of Antibody Structure 115
3-12 Normal and Abnormal Metabolic Pathways of Phenylalanine
and Tyrosine 120
3-13 Frequency Distributions of Some Characteristics of Phenylketonuria
inPhenylketonuric Patients (Shaded) and in Control Populations 121
4-1 Separation of Hemoglobins by Electrophoresis 135
4-2 Normal and Sickled Human Red Blood Cells 138
4-3 Physiological Effects and Clinical Symptoms of Sickle Cell Disease 139
4-4 Distribution of Malaria and Sickle Cell Anemia 142
4-5 Hemoglobin S and Other Red-Cell Defects in India 144
4-6 Incidence of G6PD Deficiency and the Thalassemia Trait in
Relation to Altitude above Sea Level 156
4-7 African American Origins of Hemoglobins 160
4-8 Tree Diagram Estimating Genetic Distances between
Five Population Groups 166
4-9 Two Polymorphic Markers in the Noncoding Region of the CD4,
Chromosome 12 167
4-10 Schematic Diagram of Fragment Polymorphisms 170
4-11 DNA Fingerprints:A Schematic Illustration 171
5-1 Epidermal Unit:Pigment and Basal cell 178
5-2 Mean Reflectance Curves of European,African,and Various
Hybrid Groups 179
5-3 Biochemical Pathways of Melanin Synthesis 180
5-4 Distribution of Human Skin Color 183
5-5 Daily Total of Ultraviolet Radiation for 1974 in Minneapolis 185
5-6 Skin-Reflectance Characteristics of a Sample of American Blacks
and Whites 186
5-7 Skin-Reflectance Characteristics of Several Populations 187
5-8 Outline of Normal Pelvic Inlet (Solid line) and Contracted Pelvic
Inlet due to Severe Childhood Rickets (Broken line) 191
5-9 Ranges of Average Cranial Capacity 197
5-10 Faces of Homo sapiens 198
5-11 Alveolar Prognathism 200
5-12 Examples of Worn Teeth in Prehistoric Populations 201
5-13 Diagram of Stature Variation between Populations 206
5-14 Sexual Dimorphism:Differences in Size,Shape,and Proportion
of Male and Female Body Form 207
5-15 Drawings of Three Distinct Body Forms:Nilotic,Inuit,and Pygmy 208
Contents ix
5-16 Steatopygia of a !Kung Female 210
5-17 Body Mass Index versus Mean Anual Temperature 213
6-1 Skeletal Development 219
6-2 Radiographs of Hands of Children 220
6-3 Suture Closure of the Skull 222
6-4 Eruption and Replacement of Primary and Secondary Dentition 223
6-5 Amount of Increase in Height per Year of Early-Maturing and
Late-Maturing Girls and Boys 225
6-6a Heights of Boys of the Manual Worker Class and of the
Nonmanual,Mostly Professional Class,in about 1870 in Englnd 228
6-6b Mean Heights of Girls Working in Factories in the
Manchester–Leeds area,in England in 1833 and 1837 229
6-7 Heights of Marine Society Recruits 230
6-8 Secular Trend in Height 231
6-9 Comparative Diets 242
6-10 Changes in Surface Area to Volume 250
6-11 Oxygen Saturation of Arterial Blood at Altitude 259
6-12 Model of Major Influences on Phenotypic Expression 268
7-1 Photo of Immigrants on Ellis Island Awaiting Admission
about 1900 (Library of Congress) 272
7-2a Comparison of IQ Distributions of American Black and
White Elementary Schoolchildren 282
7-2b&cComparisons of IQ Scores of Black and White Schoolchildren 283
7-3 Racial-Ethnic Group Achievement Means Adjusted for Social
Background Conditions 289
8-1 Relationships of Pacific Peoples by Measurement 315
8-2 Population Similarities or Differences:A Matter of Focus 320
8-3a Dendrogram Showing Genetic Similarities among Asian and
American Arctic and Sub-Arctic populations 322
8-3b Relationships within and between Native American,Pacific,
and Old World Populations 322
8-4a Variations in the Frequency of a Blood Type between Parma
Valley Villages 327
8-4b Distances between Prenuptial Households in Parma
Valley Villages 328
8-5 Frequencies of B Allele in Europe 339
8-6 Distribution of B Allele in France and Italy 340
10-1 World Regions,1750–1950 374
10-2 Infant Mortality Rates of Select Populations 378
10-3 Contraceptive Use and Fertility Rates 382
10-4 Changing Ethnic Dimensions of the United States 387
10-5 Age-Sex Population Pyramids:Rapid,Slow,and No-Growth Models 390
10-6 Children Younger Than Fifteen Years of Age,1950–2000 391
10-7 Regional Populations,1975–2020 394
