Hormone Behavior Relations of Clinical Importance: Endocrine Systems Interacting with Brain and Behavior

1183 Pages·2009·13.8 MB·English

by  Robert H. Rubin MD

HORMONE/BEHAVIOR
RELATIONS OF
CLINICAL
IMPORTANCE:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
INTERACTING WITH
BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
Thispageintentionally leftblank
HORMONE/BEHAVIOR
RELATIONS OF
CLINICAL
IMPORTANCE:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
INTERACTING WITH
BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
Edited by
Robert T. Rubin
DepartmentofPsychiatryandBiobehavioralSciences,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,LosAngeles,California
Donald W. Pfaff
TheRockefellerUniversity,NewYork,NewYork
Amsterdam • Boston (cid:129) Heidelberg (cid:129) London (cid:129) New York (cid:129) Oxford
Paris (cid:129) San Diego (cid:129) San Francisco (cid:129) Singapore (cid:129) Sydney (cid:129) Tokyo
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Copyright#2009ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved
MaterialintheworkoriginallyappearedinHormones,BrainandBehavior,2ndEdition,
editedbyD.W.Pfaff,A.P.Arnold,A.M.Etgen,S.E.FahrbachandR.T.Rubin(ElsevierInc2009)
ThefollowingarticlesareUSgovernmentworksinthepublicdomainandarenotsubjecttocopyright:
GONADALHORMONESANDBEHAVIORINWOMEN:CONCENTRATIONS
VERSUSCONTEXT
NEUROREGULATORYPEPTIDESOFCENTRALNERVOUSSYSTEM
ORIGIN:FROMLABORATORYTOCLINIC
THENEUROENDOCRINOLOGYOFMOODDISORDERS
HUMANIMMUNODEFICIENCYVIRUS
ANDACQUIREDIMMUNODEFICIENCYSYNDROME
NEUROENDOCRINEASPECTSOFPOST-TRAUMATICSTRESSDISORDER
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PRINTEDANDBOUNDINCHINA
09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Contributors xxv 1.5 OpioidReceptors 26
1.5.1 m-OpioidReceptors 27
AbouttheEditors xxix
1.5.1.1 m-Opioidreceptorsin
nociception,stressresponse,
andpost-traumaticstress
PrinciplesofTranslational disorder 27
Neuroendocrinology 1 1.5.1.2 m-Opioidreceptorsinreward,
RTRubinandDWPfaff pleasure,andanxiety 28
1.5.1.3 m-Opioidreceptorligand
bindingindifferentsplice
PARTI
ENDOCRINESYSTEMSINTERACTING variants 30
1.5.2 Endorphins 30
WITHBRAINANDBEHAVIOR
1.5.2.1 Maturationofthe
b-endorphin-precursor
CHAPTER1 proopiomelanocortin 31
GeneticTransmissionofBehaviorandIts
1.5.2.2 b-Endorphininmotivation,
NeuroendocrineCorrelates 7
reward,andhedonicvalue 32
BHambsch,RLandgraf,LCzibere,andCTouma 1.5.2.3 b-Endorphininstress,anxiety,
1.1 Introduction 8 andpost-traumaticstress
disorder 32
1.2 StressandtheHPASystem 8
1.5.3 k-OpioidReceptors 33
1.2.1 DysregulationoftheHypothalamic–
1.5.3.1 k-Opioidreceptorsinreward
Pituitary–AdrenalAxisinAffective
andaversion 33
Disorders 10
1.5.3.2 k-Opioidreceptorsin
1.2.2 AnimalModelsElucidatingthe
anxietyandethanol-induced
MolecularBasisofNeuroendocrine–
anxiolysis 33
BehaviorInteractions 11
1.5.4 Dynorphins 34
1.2.2.1 Micewithtargetedmutations
1.5.4.1 Prodynorphininanalgesia,
modulatingHPA-axisfunction 11
reward,andaversion 34
1.2.2.2 Nontargetedgeneticapproaches 16
1.5.5 d-Opioidreceptors 35
1.3 TheOxytocinandVasopressinSystems 18
1.5.5.1 d-Opioidreceptorsin
1.3.1 TheOxytocinSystem 19 depression,anxiety,and
1.3.1.1 Oxytocin 19 ethanol-inducedanxiolysis 35
1.3.1.2 Theoxytocinreceptor 20 1.5.6 Enkephalins 36
1.3.2 TheVasopressinSystem 21 1.5.6.1 Enkephalinsinnociceptionand
1.3.2.1 Vasopressin 21 anxiety 36
1.3.2.2 ThevasopressinV1areceptor 22 1.5.6.2 Enkephalinsinstress-
1.3.2.3 ThevasopressinV1breceptor 23 inducedanhedoniaand
1.4 Tachykinins 24 depression 37
1.4.1 DifferentTypesofTachykininsand
1.6 Conclusion 37
Receptors 24
1.4.2 FunctionofTachykininSignaling 25 References 38
v
vi Contents
CHAPTER2 4.1 Introduction 86
Hypothalamic–Pituitary–AdrenalCortical
4.2 CellasContext 86
Axis 47
MERhodes,JMMcKlveen,DRRipepi,andNEGentile 4.3 DevelopmentalStageasContext:
2.1 Introduction 48 CriticalPeriods 87
2.1.1 TheStressSystem 48
4.4 Environment/ExperienceasContext 87
2.1.2 TheHPAAxis 49
2.1.3 Corticotropin-ReleasingHormone 50 4.5 ReproductiveEndocrineSystem 89
2.1.4 ArginineVasopressin 52 4.5.1 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–OvarianAxis
2.1.5 AdrenocorticotropicHormone 53 andGonadalSteroids 89
2.1.6 Glucocorticoids 54 4.5.2 DynamicsoftheMenstrualCycle,
MenopauseTransition,Pregnancy,and
2.2 BrainRegulationofStressResponses 55
Postpartum 89
2.3 PhysiologicalResponsestoStress 57 4.5.2.1 Menstrualcycle 89
4.5.2.2 Menopausetransition 90
2.4 HPADysregulation:Conditionswith
4.5.2.3 Pregnancyandthepostpartum 90
AlteredHPA-AxisActivity 59
2.4.1 HyperactiveConditions 59 4.6 ReproductiveEndocrineSystemsand
2.4.2 HypoactiveConditions 62 thePathophysiologyofMoodDisorders 92
2.5 Conclusion 62 4.6.1 Neurotransmitters 92
4.6.2 CellSignalingPathways 93
References 62 4.6.3 BrainRegionalMorphologicalChanges 93
4.6.4 TheHypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal
CHAPTER3 Axis 93
Hypothalamic–Pituitary–ThyroidAxis 69
4.6.5 RoleofGonadalSteroidsin
RTJoffe ModulatingtheSystemsInvolvedin
3.1 Introduction 69 MoodDisorders 94
4.6.5.1 Neuroregulation 94
3.2 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–ThyroidAxis 70
4.6.5.2 Neuralsystems 94
3.3 ThyroidDisease 70 4.6.5.3 Stressaxis 95
3.3.1 Hyperthyroidism 70
4.7 SexualDimorphismsinPsychiatric
3.3.2 Hypothyroidism 71
Disorders 96
3.3.3 SubclinicalHypothyroidism 71
3.3.4 EuthyroidHypothyroxinemia 72 4.7.1 Introduction 96
4.7.1.1 Depression 97
3.4 MajorPsychiatricDisorders 72
4.7.1.2 Physiologicaldimorphisms 97
3.4.1 Depression 72
3.4.1.1 Basalthyroidhormonelevels 72 4.8 PremenstrualDysphoria 98
3.4.1.2 Useofthyroidhormonesto
4.9 HormonalStudiesofPMD 98
treatdepression 74
4.9.1 Hypothalamic–Pituitary–OvarianAxis 98
3.4.2 BipolarDisorder 76
4.9.2 Context(HormonesasTriggersor
3.4.2.1 Thyroidhormonelevels 77
Treatments) 100
3.4.2.2 Effectofmood-stabilizing
treatmentsonthyroidhormone 4.10 PerimenopausalDepression 101
levels 77
4.11 HormonalStudiesofPerimenopausal
3.4.2.3 Useofthyroidhormonesto
Depression 101
treatbipolardisorder 77
3.4.3 OtherPsychiatricDisorders 78 4.12 GonadalSteroidsasTreatmentsof
3.4.3.1 Anxietydisorder 78 MoodDisorders 103
3.4.3.2 Schizophrenia 78 4.12.1 EstrogenTreatment 103
3.5 Conclusion 78 4.12.2 DehydroepiandrosteroneTreatment 104
References 78 4.13 PostpartumPsychiatricDisorders 104
4.14 HormoneTreatmentStudies 105
CHAPTER4 4.14.1 EstrogenTreatment 105
Hypothalamic–Pituitary–GonadalAxisin
4.14.2 ProgesteroneTreatment 106
Women 85
4.15 GonadalTriggersinContext 106
DRRubinow,PJSchmidt,SMeltzer-Brody,andVLHarsh
Contents vii
4.16 Context 107 5.3.8 TDeficiency:MaleHypogonadism 134
5.3.8.1 Etiologies 134
References 107
5.3.8.2 Clinicalmanifestationsof
hypogonadism:Clinicalhistory
CHAPTER5
andphysicalexamination 136
Hypothalamic–Pituitary–GonadalAxisin
5.3.8.3 Laboratorytestsinassessment
Men 119
ofhypogonadism 137
RSSwerdloff,CWang,andAPSinhaHikim
5.3.8.4 Treatmentofandrogen
5.1 HypothalamicControl 120 deficiency 137
5.1.1 HypothalamicRegulation
5.4 SpermatogenesisandSpermTransport 138
ofGonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone 120 5.4.1 HormonalRegulationof
5.1.2 GnRHSynthesisandSecretion 120 Spermatogenesis 139
5.1.3 OriginandMigrationofGnRH 5.4.1.1 Gonadotropinsandandrogen
NeuronsduringDevelopment 121 regulationofspermatogenesis 139
5.4.1.2 Gonadotropinsandandrogen
5.2 Pituitary 121
regulationofprogrammed
5.2.1 Gonadotropin-SecretingCellsinthe germcelldeath 141
Pituitary 121
5.4.1.3 Gonadotropinsandandrogens
5.2.2 MolecularBasisofPituitary asgermcellsurvivalfactors 142
Development 121
5.4.1.4 Sertolicellcontrolof
5.2.3 GnRHReceptors 121 spermatogenesis 143
5.2.4 BiochemistryofLHandFSH 122 5.4.2 SpermTransport 144
5.2.5 LHandFSHSubunitGenes 122
5.4.3 EnvironmentalAgentsandthe
5.2.6 SynthesisandPost-Translational ReproductiveSystem 144
ProcessingoftheSubunits 123 5.4.4 MaleInfertility 144
5.2.7 LHandFSHReceptorStructure 123 5.4.4.1 Prevalenceandincidence 144
5.2.8 ClearanceandSecretoryRhythmsof 5.4.4.2 Etiology 144
LHandFSH 123
5.4.4.3 Approachtothediagnosisof
5.2.9 RolesofLHandFSHintheMale 123 maleinfertility 144
5.2.10 GonadalFeedbackRegulationofLH 5.4.4.4 Managementofmaleinfertility 145
andFSH 124
5.2.10.1Gonadalsteroids 124 5.5 SexualDysfunction 145
5.2.10.2Gonadalpeptides(inhibin, 5.5.1 DecreasedLibido 145
activins,andfollistatins)and 5.5.2 EjaculatoryFailureandImpairedOrgasm 146
feedbackregulationofFSH 124 5.5.3 ErectileDysfunction 146
5.2.10.3Summary 125 5.5.3.1 Prevalence 146
5.5.3.2 Etiology 146
5.3 Testes-LeydigCellCompartment 125
5.5.3.3 ClinicalmanagementofED 146
5.3.1 TesticularSteroidogenesis 125
5.3.2 TTransportandMetabolism 126 References 146
5.3.3 TSecretionduringFetalDevelopment, FurtherReading 155
Childhood,Puberty,andSenescence 126
5.3.3.1 FetalLeydigcell
CHAPTER6
steroidogenesis 126 SexDifferencesinHumanBrainStructure
5.3.3.2 NeonatalTsecretion 127 andFunction 157
5.3.3.3 Adrenarcheandpuberty 127
LCahill
5.3.3.4 Malesenescence:DecreasedT
6.1 Introduction 157
andotheranabolichormones 129
5.3.4 TasaHormone,Prehormone,and 6.2 AreSexInfluencesintheHumanBrain
ParacrineFactor 130 SmallandUnreliable? 157
5.3.5 AndrogenReceptor 131 6.3 SexInfluencesonHumanBrain
5.3.5.1 ARgene,proteinstructure,and FunctionGenerallyConsidered 158
regulatoryproteins 131
6.4 SexDifferencesinEmotionalMemory 160
5.3.5.2 ARdefects 132
5.3.6 TTargetOrgans 132 6.5 AmygdalaActivityandEmotional
5.3.7 RoleofTinNormalSexualFunction MemoryinHumans–Emergenceof
andErectilePhysiology 132 SexEffects 160
viii Contents
6.6 Sex-RelatedHemispheric 7.4 Gamma-Aminobutyricacid 183
LateralizationoftheAmygdala 7.4.1 SexDifferencesinGABAergicSystems 183
RelationshiptoEmotionalMemory 160 7.4.2 InfluenceofGonadalSteroidson
6.7 SexDifferenceinHumanAmygdala GABAergicSexDifferences 184
FunctionalConnectivityatRest 161 7.4.3 SexualDiergisminGABAergic
Systems 185
6.8 RelationshipoftheSex-Related
7.5 Norepinephrine 186
AmygdalaHemisphericSpecialization
toHemisphericGlobal/Local 7.5.1 SexualDimorphismandDiergismof
ProcessingBias 162 NoradrenergicSystems 186
6.8.1 OtherInfluencesofSexonNeuraland 7.6 Serotonin 188
HormonalMechanismsofEmotional 7.6.1 SexualDimorphismandDiergismof
Memory 162 SerotonergicSystems 188
6.9 Summary 164 7.7 Vasopressin 189
References 164 7.7.1 SexualDimorphismofAVP 189
7.7.2 SexualDiergismofAVP 190
FurtherReading 165
7.7.3 InfluenceofGonadalSteroidsonAVP
Secretion 191
CHAPTER7
7.8 ImplicationsandRelevanceofSexual
SexDifferencesinCNSNeurotransmitter
Diergism 192
InfluencesonBehavior 167
7.8.1 BehavioralRelevanceofSexual
MERhodes,TJCreel,andANNord
Diergism 193
7.1 Introduction 168
7.8.2 SexualDiergisminRelationshipto
7.1.1 SexualDimorphismoftheMammalian Disease 194
CNS 171
7.8.3 TherapeuticImplicationsofSexual
7.1.2 SexualDiergism–Physiological Diergism 194
DifferencesbetweentheSexes 171
7.9 Conclusion 195
7.2 Acetylcholine 172
References 196
7.2.1 CholinergicNervousSystem 172
7.2.2 SexualDiergisminCholine,Choline
Transport,andAcetylcholine 172 CHAPTER8
GonadalHormonesandSexual
7.2.3 SexualDiergisminCholinergic
DifferentiationofHumanBrainandBehavior 207
Enzymes 173
7.2.4 SexualDiergisminCholinergic MHines
ReceptorActivity 174 8.1 Introduction 208
7.2.5 InfluenceofGonadalSteroidson 8.2 DefinitionsandTheoreticalModels 208
CholinergicSystems 175 8.2.1 Definitions 208
7.2.6 CholinergicSexualDiergismin
8.2.1.1 Organizationandactivation 208
RelationtoLearning,Memory,and
8.2.1.2 Sexdifferencesandgender
OtherBehaviors 176 differences 209
7.2.7 AcetylcholineandtheHPAaxis 176
8.2.2 TheoreticalModels 209
7.2.7.1 SexualdiergisminbasalHPA- 8.2.2.1 Theclassicmodel 209
axisactivity 177 8.2.2.2 Thegradientmodel 210
7.2.7.2 Influenceofgonadalsteroids
8.2.2.3 Activefeminization 210
onHPA-axisactivity 177
8.2.2.4 Complexityandmultiple
7.2.7.3 SexualdiergismofHPA-axis models 210
responsestostimulation 177
8.2.3 Summary 211
7.2.7.4 SexualdiergismofHPA-axis
8.3 HormonalInfluencesonHuman
responsestocholinergic
SexualDifferentiation:Sourcesof
stimulationandantagonism 179
Information 211
7.3 Dopamine 182 8.3.1 SyndromesInvolvingPrenatal
7.3.1 DopaminergicAge-RelatedSex HormonalAbnormality 212
Differences 182 8.3.1.1 Congenitaladrenalhyperplasia 212
7.3.2 SexualDiergism,GonadalHormones, 8.3.1.2 Androgeninsensitivity
andDopamine 182 syndrome 213
Contents ix
8.3.1.3 Androgenbiosynthesis 8.6.1.6 Thecorpuscallosum 235
deficiencies(5-aRand17-HSD 8.6.1.7 Thecerebralcortex 236
deficiencies) 213 8.6.2 HormonesandtheHumanBrain 237
8.3.1.4 Hypogonadotropic
8.7 SummaryandConclusions 237
hypogonadism 213
8.3.1.5 Turnersyndrome 213 8.7.1 FittingaTheoreticalModel 238
8.3.1.6 Cloacalexstrophy 214 8.7.2 MechanismsofHormoneAction 238
8.7.3 ClinicalandTheoreticalImportance 239
8.3.1.7 Penileagenesis(aphallia) 214
8.3.1.8 Ablatiopenis 214 References 239
8.3.2 HormoneAdministrationduring
Pregnancy 214
CHAPTER9
8.3.3 NormalVariabilityinHormones 215 HumanPuberty:PhysiologyandGenetic
Regulation 249
8.4 HormonalInfluencesonHumanSexual
BAKaminskiandMRPalmert
Differentiation:HumanBehavioralSex
Differences 216 9.1 Introduction 249
8.4.1 CoreGenderIdentity 216 9.2 PrepubertalDevelopment 250
8.4.2 SexualOrientation 217 9.2.1 PrenatalandPostnatalDevelopment 250
8.4.3 Gender-RoleBehavior 217 9.2.2 TheJuvenilePause 250
8.4.3.1 Childhoodplay 217 9.2.3 OntogenyofGonadotropinSecretion 250
8.4.3.2 Cognitiveabilities 217
9.3 PhysicalChangesofPuberty 251
8.4.3.3 Emotion,temperament,and
personality 219 9.3.1 BoneAge 252
8.4.3.4 Psychopathology 219 9.4 TimingofPubertalOnset 252
8.4.3.5 Neuralasymmetries 219
9.5 GeneticBasisofPubertalTiming 253
8.5 HormonesandSexualDifferentiation 9.5.1 ApproachestoIdentifyingGenetic
ofHumanBehavior:Findings 220 Factors 253
8.5.1 CoreGenderIdentity 220 9.5.2 InsightsfromSingleGeneDisorders 255
8.5.2 SexualOrientation 222 9.5.2.1 Idiopathichypogonadotropic
8.5.3 ChildhoodPlay 224 hypogonadism 255
8.5.4 Cognition 226 9.5.2.2 Kallmannsyndrome 256
8.5.4.1 Generalintelligence 226 9.5.2.3 Leptinandothergenes 256
8.5.4.2 Specificcognitiveabilities 227 9.5.3 GeneticVariationinNormalPuberty 257
9.5.4 QuantitativeTraitLociAssociatedwith
8.5.5 Emotion,Temperament,and
Personality 230 TimingofPuberty 258
8.5.5.1 Aggression 230 9.6 NeuroendocrineRegulationof
8.5.5.2 Empathy 231 PubertalOnset 260
8.5.5.3 Interestinparenting 231
9.7 EnvironmentalInfluencesonPubertal
8.5.5.4 Otherpersonality
Timing 260
characteristics 231
9.7.1 ObesityandtheRelationshipto
8.5.6 Psychopathology 231
PubertalTiming 260
8.5.7 NeuralAsymmetries 232
9.7.2 EndocrineDisruptersand
8.5.7.1 Handpreferences 232
EnvironmentalInfluences 261
8.5.7.2 Languagelateralization 233
9.8 BehaviorRelatedtoVariationsin
8.6 HormonalInfluencesonNeuralSexual PubertalTiming 261
Differentiation 233 9.8.1 PsychosocialChangesofPuberty 261
8.6.1 SexDifferencesinNeuralStructure 9.8.2 BrainDevelopmentduringPuberty 262
andFunction 233 9.9 Conclusion 263
8.6.1.1 Brainsize 233
References 263
8.6.1.2 Anteriorhypothalamic/
preopticarea 233
8.6.1.3 Thebednucleusofthestria CHAPTER10
terminalis 234 TheBiologyofSexualOrientationand
8.6.1.4 Theanteriorcommissure 234 GenderIdentity 271
8.6.1.5 Thesuprachiasmaticnucleus 234 FJSa´nchez,SBocklandt,andEVilain