Table Of ContentHONEY BEE
COLONY HEALTH
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CONTEMPORARY TOPICS in ENTOMOLOGY SERIES
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THOMAS A. MILLER EDITOR
Insect Symbiosis
Edited by Kostas Bourtzis and Thomas A. Miller
Insect Sounds and Communication: Physiology, Behaviour, Ecology,
and Evolution
Edited by Sakis Drosopoulos and Michael F. Claridge
Insect Symbiosis, Volume 2
Edited by Kostas Bourtzis and Thomas A. Miller
Insect Symbiosis, Volume 3
Edited by Kostas Bourtzis and Thomas A. Miller
Food Exploitation by Social Insects: Ecological, Behavioral,
and Theoretical Approaches
Edited by Stefan Jarau and Michael Hrncir
Molecular Biology and Genetics of the Lepidoptera
Edited by Marian R. Goldsmith and František Marec
Honey Bee Colony Health: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions
Edited by Diana Sammataro and Jay A. Yoder
CONTEMPORARY TOPICS in ENTOMOLOGY SERIES
HONEY BEE
THOMAS A. MILLER EDITOR
Insect Symbiosis
COLONY HEALTH
Edited by Kostas Bourtzis and Thomas A. Miller
Insect Sounds and Communication: Physiology, Behaviour, Ecology,
and Evolution
Edited by Sakis Drosopoulos and Michael F. Claridge
Challenges and Sustainable Solutions
Insect Symbiosis, Volume 2
Edited by Kostas Bourtzis and Thomas A. Miller
Insect Symbiosis, Volume 3
Edited by Kostas Bourtzis and Thomas A. Miller
Food Exploitation by Social Insects: Ecological, Behavioral,
and Theoretical Approaches
Edited by Stefan Jarau and Michael Hrncir
Molecular Biology and Genetics of the Lepidoptera
Edited by Marian R. Goldsmith and František Marec
Honey Bee Colony Health: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions
Edited by Diana Sammataro and Jay A. Yoder
Edited by
Diana Sammataro & Jay A. Yoder
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20111109
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v
Table of Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix
Contributors xi
Introduction xv
1 Honey Bee Health: The Potential Role
1
of Microbes
2 Seasonal Microflora, Especially Winter
13
and Spring
3 Evaluation of Varroa Mite Tolerance
21
in Honey Bees
4 Status of Breeding Practices and Genetic
25
Diversity in Domestic U.S. Honey Bees
Photo by G. DeGrandi-Hoffman.
5
Global Status of Honey Bee Mites 37
6 Challenges for Developing Biopesticides
55
Against Varroa
7
Molecular Forensics for Honey Bee Colonies 63
8 Honey Bee Viruses and Their Effect
71
on Bee and Colony Health
9
PCR for the Analysis of Nosema in Honey Bees 103
10 Nosema ceranae Detection
115
by Microscopy and Antibody Tests
vi Honey Bee Colony Health: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions
11
Chalkbrood Re-Examined 121
Critical Transition Temperature (CTT)
12
of Chalkbrood Fungi and Its Significance 131
for Disease Incidence
13 Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida)
135
Contributions to Colony Losses
13
14 Pesticides and Honey Bee Toxicity
145
in the United States
15 Cellular Response in Honey Bees to
161
Non-Pathogenic Effects of Pesticides
Differences Among Fungicides Targeting
16
the Beneficial Fungi Associated with 181
Honey Bee Colonies
17 Fungicides Reduce Symbiotic Fungi in Bee Bread
193
and the Beneficial Fungi in Colonies
Photo by D. Sammataro.
18 Interactions between Risk Factors
215
in Honey Bees
19 Understanding the Impact of Honey Bee
223
Disorders on Crop Pollination
20 Calculating and Reporting Managed
229
Honey Bee Colony Losses
21
Conservation of Plant–Pollinator Mutualisms 237
References 241
Index 295
Credits 302
vii
Preface
There is no doubt that honey bees have given human beings great gifts—
in the honey that sweetens our lives and in the wax candles that light our
way. This highly social insect has inspired generations of writers,
philosophers, artists, poets, and scientists with its industry and complex
organization. Of all the insects that exist in our world, honey bees are far
and away the most studied.
But all of the gifts that honey bees have bestowed do not compare
with the role these industrious insects play every day—in the interaction
of bees and flowers. It cannot be stressed enough that without this action
of bees pollinating the numerous flowering plants that bloom every day,
we poor humans would be restricted to a diet of grains and precious few
fruits and vegetables. Bees were so important that the early American
colonists made sure they were included in the perilous journey to the
New World. This migration of bees continues to this day.
The pollinating power of bees secures for us our modern-day diet of
fruits and vegetables for human consumption as well as the forage crops
our animals eat. Bees also allow us to beautify our gardens by setting
seeds of the many flowers we plant. Ironic, then, that honey bees have
been taken for granted so long and were under-valued by many, reflected
by the low prices paid to beekeepers for their hive products and pollinating
activities.
This complacency is now a thing of the past. Realization of the vital
importance of honey bees has been the focus of the many orchardists
who grow and manage hundreds of acres of single-species crops, such as
almonds, apples, and berries. The commercial monocultures needed to Photo by D. Sammataro.
feed a hungry population that demands cheap food and year-round exotic
fruits were the first to appreciate how dependent they are on bee
pollination. Commercial orchards need commercial bees, so beekeeping
became a large-scale business to meet the pollination demands.
As always when any animals or plants are forced to live together in
crowded conditions, problems arise. Actions must be taken to keep them
healthy and to protect them from the deleterious effects of mass feeding
or chemicals to control pests and pathogens. While crop yield is undeniably
boosted by such measures, it comes at the expense of depriving foraging
bees of necessary nutrients and exposing them to toxins that interfere
with their natural processes.
viii Honey Bee Colony Health: Challenges and Sustainable Solutions
All of these factors could have been balanced had it not been for the
accidental introduction of two parasitic mites. One of them, Varroa
destructor, has proven to be the most debilitating to the Western honey
bee (Apis mellifera) throughout its global distribution. Varroa weakens
bees through their feeding, reproduction, and the transmission of new
pathogens.
To make matters worse, new invaders have come, including a new
beetle, which made its way out of Africa, as well as a new virus and a
new fungus. All of these factors together create a perfect storm that the
beleaguered bees cannot handle. Anyone who works with this wonderful
insect is amazed at their resistance to pests, their tolerance to human
meddling, and their ability to survive. The loss of bees and all pollinators
is now the focus of intense research and speculation by many. We who
work with bees are grateful that at last the importance of bees is now
realized and this hard-working insect is getting the attention it needs. The
downside, of course, is that bees are in trouble and, like other at-risk
animals, could be the “canary in the coal mine” of the ecological changes
that are currently happening in our world. The many authors who
graciously agreed to contribute their expertise to this volume are united
in their concern for bees during this current crisis.
The purpose of this book is to provide collective knowledge from the
many scientists who work with bees, to share their research, and to
inspire future generations of researchers, beekeepers, and students to
continue to study bees and keep them healthy and pollinating.
Photo by M. Frazier.
ix
Acknowledgments
The editors wish to express their thanks and appreciation to the numerous
authors for their hard work in contributing to this volume. Your enthusiasm
for this project demonstrates your commitment to sharing your knowledge
with others so that all of us who work with bees may gain in understanding
the myriad factors that influence the complex world of the bee. Your
chapters made this book both important and inspirational. Thank you.
We also greatly appreciate Zach Hedges, who organized and set up the
text of all the original documents. This was done under great pressure
while Zach was a student and studying for exams. Thank you for your
hard work, both in learning a new page-layout program and in organizing
the chapters into a cohesive volume.
Judy Walker took firm control of those chapters and created this original
and beautifully crafted volume. Her professional acumen and creative
insights are inspiring. Not only does she have a fine eye for what is
aesthetically pleasing, but also those techniques that help convey the
information in a unique and forthright manner. Thank you for your
diligent work; it was a great pleasure to work with you on this enterprise.
Ann Harman, as usual, was invaluable as our proofreader. Your quick eye
and sharp mind are valuable assets to any author. Thank you.
We also wish to extend our gratitude to John Sulzycki, Senior Editor at
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, and his staff for encouraging us to
Photo by M. Frazier.
publish with them. Thank you for your help and for suggesting the title.
And last but not least, we wish to dedicate this book to all the hard
working honey bees, without which we would have nothing to write
about. Keep up the good work.
Diana Sammataro, Ph.D.
Research Entomologist,
USDA-ARS Carl Hayden Bee Research Center
Tucson, Arizona
Jay Yoder, Ph.D.
Wittenberg University
Springfield, Ohio
