History of Science in South Asia

39 Pages·2017·0.56 MB·English

by  Dagmar Wujastyk

History of Science in South Asia
Ajournalforthehistoryofallformsofscientificthoughtandaction,ancientandmodern,inallregionsofSouthAsia
Special issue:
Transmutations: Rejuvenation, Longevity, and
Immortality Practices in South and Inner Asia
Edited by Dagmar Wujastyk, Suzanne Newcombe,
and Christèle Barois
Acts of Improvement: On the Use of Tonics and
Elixirs in Sanskrit Medical and Alchemical
Literature
DagmarWujastyk
UniversityofVienna
MLA style citation form: Dagmar Wujastyk. “Acts of Improvement: On the Use of Tonics and Elixirs in
Sanskrit Medical and Alchemical Literature.” History of Science in South Asia, 5.2 (2017): 1–36. doi:
10.18732/hssa.v5i2.26.
Onlineversionavailableat:http://hssa-journal.org
HISTORYOFSCIENCEINSOUTHASIA
Ajournalforthehistoryofallformsofscientificthoughtandaction,ancientandmodern,inall
regionsofSouthAsia,publishedonlineathttp://hssa-journal.org
ISSN2369-775X
EditorialBoard:
• DominikWujastyk,UniversityofAlberta,Edmonton,Canada
• KimPlofker,UnionCollege,Schenectady,UnitedStates
• DhruvRaina,JawaharlalNehruUniversity,NewDelhi,India
• SreeramulaRajeswaraSarma,formerlyAligarhMuslimUniversity,Düsseldorf,Germany
• FabrizioSpeziale,UniversitéSorbonneNouvelle–CNRS,Paris,France
• MichioYano,KyotoSangyoUniversity,Kyoto,Japan
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Acts of Improvement: On the Use of Tonics and
Elixirs in Sanskrit Medical and Alchemical
Literature
DagmarWujastyk
UniversityofVienna
BothSanskritmedicalandalchemicalworksdescribeproceduresandformu-
lationscalled“rasāyana”.1 Theterm“rasāyana”isacompoundoftwowords,
“rasa” (liquid, juice, flavour, nutritive juice, essence) and “ayana” (path, way)
or “āyana” (reaching, attaining). Because of the polyvalent meanings of its ele-
ments,inparticularof“rasa,”therearedifferentvalidpossibilitiesforinterpret-
ingthemeaningofrasāyana.2 Fenner(1979:69)suggestedthat“(u)singtheterm
rasainitsgeneralsenseofessence,thetermrasāyanacouldbetakentomeanthe
act of preparing what is of value in something, or simply the act of improve-
ment.”3
1 The differentiation between Sanskrit embracesthe literatureon rasaśāstra.” See
medical and alchemical literature is not also White 2012:491 for a useful list of
clearcut in all cases. I generally follow common elements found in alchemical
the convention of differentiating between worksnotfoundinmedicalworks.
them as proposed by Meulenbeld (1999– 2 Consider,forexample,White’s(1996:184)
2002:IIA, 581–789), who separately lists “wayofrasa,” Palit’s(2009:18): “paththat
a series of works under the rubric of rasa takes,” rasa being defined as “primor-
“rasaśāstra.”Astheinclusionoftheseworks dialtissueorplasma”here,andRāy’strans-
inahistoryofIndianmedicalliteraturein- lationofrasāyanasubstancesandmedicines
dicates,therelationshipbetweenthemand as“ElixirVitae”(Rāy1903:80).
medicaltreatises,i.e.,workspredominantly 3 Based on a definition of rasāyana in the
dedicated to health and healing, can be Carakasaṃhitā, Fenner (1979:69) concluded
very close. Meulenbeld (1999–2002:IA,4) that “rasa can be viewed generally in its
notesthat: “Rasaśāstra(alchemyandiatro- meaningasthenutrientfluidwhichspreads
chemistry) and ayurveda are overlapping throughthebody,andspecificallyasoneof
areas and became intimately connected thetastesoractiveprincipleswhichmakes
witheachotherinthecourseoftime.Many up this fluid. The term ayana in rasayana
textscanonlybeclassifiedasintermediate can now be understood as the art or way
betweenthetwoorasbelongingtobothat (fromayana=path)ofpreparing(or,asthe
the same time. For this reason my survey Tibetansputit,extracting)therasa.”
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
2 acts of improvement
InSanskritmedicalliterature,rasāyanaisdefinedasoneofeightsubjectareas
ofmedicine. Theproclaimedaimofrasāyanatherapiesistopreserveorpromote
health and well-being, but also to prolong life, to halt degeneration caused by
ageing,torejuvenateandtoimprovecognitivefunction. Theterm“rasāyana”de-
scribesthetherapiesthattogetherconstitutethisbranchofmedicine;themeth-
odology and regimen of treatment; and the medicinal substances and formula-
tionsusedinthesetherapies.
Many Sanskrit medical works dedicate chapters to the subject of rasāyana.4
Thesetypicallycontainlistsofrecipesanddescriptionsoftheirapplications,but
also definitions of rasāyana; expositions on the characteristics and properties of
singlerawmaterials;instructionsonthemethodologyoftreatment;descriptions
ofwhoissuitablefortreatment;andprescriptionsforbehavioursanddietbefore,
duringoraftertreatment,oreveninlieuoftreatment. Theoldestmedicalworks’
presentations of rasāyana are quite unlike each other: the Carakasaṃhitā and Su-
śrutasaṃhitā do not share a single rasāyana recipe, though there is some overlap
inrawingredients. Thereisalsoamarkeddifferenceintheirperspectivesonthe
functioningofrasāyanaasanti-ageingorrejuvenatingtherapy. Thetreatisesdo,
however, share ideas about treatment methodology. Both describe two general
methods of treatment: a multi-layered treatment that takes place in a purpose-
builthutunderparticularcircumstances,andasimplerversionthattakesplace
without the special therapy structure.5 Both involve preliminary treatments of
internalcleansing,followedbyamilddietforregainingstrength,andthentreat-
mentproperwiththechosentonicoveraperiodoftime. TheCarakasaṃhitāem-
beds its description of rasāyana in a narrative about ancient seers (ṛṣi ) who are
presentedasthefirstconsumersofrasāyanaaswellasthefirsthumanphysicians
and authors of the medical texts. This narrative framework is, however, absent
in the Suśrutasaṃhitā and only briefly alluded to in later medical works in the
contextofparticularformulae,asforexample,“Cyavana’sfood”(cyavanaprāśa),
arasāyanaformulaassociatedwiththeVedicseerCyavana. Laterworks,starting
4 The following Sanskrit medical works Bhāvaprakāśa (sixteenth century ce),
were consulted for this article: the Caraka- Yogaratnākara (eighteenth century ce),
saṃhitā (early centuries ce), Suśrutasaṃhitā Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī (eighteenth/nineteenth
(early centuries ce), Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā century ce). Apart from the Śārṅgadhara-
(ca.seventh century), Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha saṃhitā,alloftheseworkscontainseparate
(ca.seventh century ce), Kalyāṇakāraka chaptersonrasāyana.
(ca.ninth century ce), Siddhayoga (ca.tenth 5 On the methods of treatment in the hut
century ce), Cakradatta (ca eleventh cen- (kuṭipraveśika)andthealternative“windand
tury ce), Vaṅgasenasaṃhitā, (ca.eleventh/ heat”treatment(vātatāpika),seetheworksof
twelfth century ce), Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā Roşu (1975), Dominik Wujastyk (2003:76–
(ca.thirteenth/fourteenth century ce), 78,125–30)andDagmarWujastyk(2015).
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
dagmar wujastyk 3
withtheSiddhayoga(ca.10thcentury),presentsimplifiedversionsofthemorede-
tailedexpositionsoftheclassicalworks,focussingmoreonlistsofformulaethan
on descriptions of treatment methods.6 There is nevertheless a strong continu-
itywiththeolderworks,reflectedinthereiterationofclassicalrasāyanaformulae
andinquotationsfromtheolderworks. However, thenewerworksalsoadded
newmaterialstothecanonofrasāyanasubstancesandformulations,andincreas-
inglyintroducednewmethodsofpreparingmedicinesthatarecloselyrelatedto
proceduresforpreparingrawmaterialsandcompoundsdescribedinalchemical
works.
In alchemical literature, the term rasāyana occurs in different contexts. It is
sometimes used to denote tonics that seem to have a similar function to those
describedinmedicalliterature. Asinmedicine,onecanalsofindthetermrasā-
yanawith theimplicationofaprocess, inthesense ofa methodoftreatment or
regimen. Most prominently, this regimen is associated with the culmination of
alchemicaloperations,i.e.,theintakeofthemercurialelixiranditseffects. Here,
rasāyanaseemstoencompassthepreparationofthepractitionerfortheintakeof
the mercurial elixir through various cleansing techniques; the formulation and
the intake of preparatory tonics and their effects; the formulation and intake of
thefinalmercurialelixir;andtheoutcomesofthatintake.
Inthefollowing,IwillfirstexaminehowtheSanskritmedicaltreatisesdealt
with the subject of rasāyana. I will consider a number of definitions of the term
“rasāyana”andhowthemedicalwritersenvisioneditsroleasabranchofAyur-
veda. Iwillalsoexplorewhatareasofapplicationthemedicaltreatisesconceived
for rasāyana. I will then examine how rasāyana is presented in alchemical litera-
ture. Using the oldest alchemical work’s chapter on rasāyana as a starting point
for comparison with other alchemical works’ expositions on the subject, I will
attempttodelineatealchemicalperspectivesonrasāyana,highlightingbothcom-
monalities and divergences between alchemical works. In the final section of
thisarticle,Iwilldiscusswhetherorhowmedicalandalchemicalconceptionsof
rasāyanaconnectintermsofaims,methodsandprocedures.
6 AmongtheworksthatIconsultedforthis usingaheadpouch,anenumerationofvital
paper,theVaṅgasenasaṃhitāistheexception spots,andalistofdiseasescausedbythehu-
to this rule in that it does not just present mourswind,bileandphlegm,respectively.
apared-downversionofrasāyanawithlists Thepresenceoftheseelementsissomewhat
offormulae.Itsrasāyanachapterislongand puzzlingastheyarenotnecessarilypresen-
varied and contains a number of elements tedaspartofrasāyana,butareinthemiddle
notpresentinanyoftheotherworks’rasā- ofthechapterbetweenrecipesandprescrip-
yana chapters, such as recipes for different tionsthataremorecommonlyfoundinrasā-
kindsofvinegar,adescriptionoftreatment yanachapters.
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
4 acts of improvement
1. RASĀYANA IN SANSKRIT MEDICAL LITERATURE
The medical treatises offer some definitions of rasāyana, or rather, of what is
meant to be achieved through rasāyana. Let us consider a few such defini-
tions,twofromtheearliestmedicaltreatises,andonefromalaterone,theSiddha-
yoga(ca.10thcentury),anditselaborationintheBhāvaprakāśa(16thcentury).
definitions
In its description of the eight subject areas of Ayurveda, the Suśrutasaṃhitā ex-
plainsrasāyanaasfollows:
7
रसायनत(cid:1030)ंनामवयः(cid:1306)ापनमायमु ध(cid:565) ाबलकरं रोगापहरणसमथ(cid:126)च
The “system of rasāyana” concerns preserving youthful vigour, pro-
moting longevity, mental power and strength, and eliminating dis-
ease.
Severaltermsofthisdefinitiondeservesomediscussion. Thefirstofthese,trans-
lated here as “preserving youthful vigour” is “vayaḥsthāpana.” “Vayas” is often
used in the sense of “youth,” and its characteristics of “vigour,” or “power.”
However, the Suśrutasaṃhitā also uses the term “vayas” in the broader sense
of “age” in three stages: childhood, maturity, and old age.8 Fixing, or pre-
serving(“sthāpana”)vayas,therefore,maymeanpreservingyouthfulvigour,but
itcouldalsomeanpreservingwhateverstageoflifeapersonisin. Here,another
rule is relevant, namely for whom rasāyana treatment is appropriate, defined in
the Suśrutasaṃhitā as those in the “early or middle” stages of age.9 The use of
“sthāpana”: “fixing,” “preserving,” “maintaining,” shows clearly that the aim
of rasāyana as defined in the Suśrutasaṃhitā is not rejuvenation, but rather anti-
ageing,i.e.,haltingtheprogressofageingratherthanreversingit.
7 Suśrutasaṃhitā,Sūtrasthāna1.8.(part) yana formulations are described as having
8 A definition of the three stages of life anti-ageing and life-extending, but not re-
canbefoundinSuśrutasaṃhitā, Sūtrasthāna juvenating properties, contrasts with the
35.29.SeealsoBaroisinthisvolume. Carakasaṃhitā, which attributes rejuvenat-
9 SeeSuśrutasaṃhitā, Cikitsāsthana27.3: पवू (cid:565) ingpowerstomanyofitsrasāyanaformulae
andgivesseveralexamplesofveryoldmen
वयिसम(cid:1001)ेवामन(cid:1289)ु (cid:1319)रसायनम॥् ूय(cid:805)ु ीतिभष(cid:632)ा-
regainingtheiryouththroughrasāyanather-
(cid:201)ः ि(cid:1310)(cid:240)धश(cid:973)ु तनोः सदा॥ ३॥“Awisephysician
apy.Themostfamousoftheseformulations
should apply rasāyana treatment to a man
is cyavanaprāśa, described in Carakasaṃhitā,
inhisearlyormiddleage, alwaysafterhis
Cikitsāsthāna1.1.62–74.
bodyhasbeencleansedandoleated(3).”
Inthisrule,theSuśrutasaṃhitā,whoserasā-
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
dagmar wujastyk 5
IntheCarakasaṃhitā,wefindalongerdiscussionofwhatrasāyanaisinthebe-
ginningofitsrasāyanachapter.10 Thechapterstartsoutwithdefiningmedicine:
िचिकि(cid:936)तं(cid:1244)ािधहरं प(cid:956)ंसाधनमौषधम।्
ूायि(cid:1249)(cid:907)ंूशमनंूकृित(cid:1306)ापनंिहतम॥् ३॥
िव(cid:990)ा(cid:983)षे जनामािनभषे जंि(cid:993)िवधंचतत।्
(cid:1322)(cid:1306)(cid:1319)ोज(cid:1292)(cid:128) रं (cid:1615)किच(cid:1615)(cid:894)िचदात(cid:1319)(cid:128) रोगनतु ॥् ४॥
One should know “therapeutics,” “that which removes disease,”
“wholesome,” “cure,” “herbal medicine,” “expiation,” “calming,”
“supporting the natural condition,” and “beneficial” as names
for medicine. And medicine is of two kinds: whatever promotes
strength in the healthy, and whatever eliminates disease in those
whoareill.
Thetreatisedefinesrasāyana,togetherwithvṛṣya(virilitytherapy)asbelongingto
thefirstcategory,thepromotionofstrengthandvigourinthehealthy. However,
this is explained as a matter of emphasis rather than as an absolute difference:
Whilerasāyanamaymostlybeconcernedwithpromotingstrengthinthehealthy,
itcanalsobeemployedtoalleviatedisease. Amoredetaileddefinitionofrasāyana
follows:
दीघम(cid:128) ायःु (cid:1317)(cid:1615)ृतमधे ामारो(cid:240)यंत(cid:538)णंवयः।
ूभावण(cid:1322)(cid:128) रौदाय(cid:126)दहे िे(cid:1050)यबलं परम॥् ७॥
वाि(cid:655)(cid:1615)(cid:973)ूण(cid:1615)तका(cid:1615)(cid:1023)लभतेनारसायनात।्
लाभोपायोिहश(cid:1298)ानांरसादीनांरसायनम॥् ८॥11
Through rasāyana, a man gains longevity, memory, mental power,
health, youthful vigour, a great radiance, complexion, and voice, an
extremely strong body and keen senses, mastery of speech, respect
and beauty. Rasāyana assuredly is a means for attaining the pro-
claimedprincipalasset,etc.12
10 See Cikitsāsthāna 1.1. 1–8. In the edi- hand-plucked (emblic myrobalan fruits)”)
tionoftheCarakasaṃhitāusedhere(Caraka- and 4. āyurvedasamutthānīyo rasāyanapāda
saṃhitā), the rasāyana chapter is located in (“therasāyanasectiondedicatedtotheuplift
the section on therapeutics (Cikitsāsthāna) ofthescienceoflife”).
and it is divided into four subchapters: 1. 11 Carakasaṃhitā,Cikitsāsthāna1.1.7–8.
abhayāmalakīyo rasāyanapāda (“the rasāyana 12 IfollowPhilippMaas’analysisofrasaas
sectiondedicatedtothechebulicandemblic here being used in the sense of “principal
myrobalans”), 2. prāṇakāmīyo rasāyanapāda asset,”whichinthiscasereferstothemain
(“the rasāyana section dedicated to the de- functionofrasāyanaofprovidinglongevity
sireforvitalbreath”),3. karapracitīyorasāy- (dīrgham āyus). See Maas’ detailed discus-
anapāda (“the rasāyana section dedicated to sionofthispassageinthisvolume.
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
6 acts of improvement
This passage recurs in a number of later medical texts, albeit with some vari-
ations. For example, “praṇati” (“respect”) is sometimes replaced with “vṛṣya”
(“manlypower,” “sexualvigour”)andthereferencetorasāyanaas“ameansfor
attainingtheproclaimedprincipalasset,etc.” isomitted.13
A third definition of rasāyana, first found in the Siddhayoga and repeated in
severallatertexts,reads:
य(cid:778)रा(cid:1244)ािधिव(cid:1003)िंसभषे जंतिसायनम।्14
Arasāyanaisaremedythatremovesageinganddisease(or: thatre-
movesdiseasecausedbyageing).
This statement is typically followed by directions adapted from Suśrutasaṃhitā,
Cikitsāsthāna 27.3–4 on the appropriate condition and age of someone who
wishes to undertake rasāyana treatment, i.e., that the body should be purified
before treatment15 and that treatment is appropriate for those in the early and
middlestagesoflife.
TheBhāvaprakāśasupplementstheSiddhayoga’sshortdefinition:
16
य(cid:778)रा(cid:1244)ािधिव(cid:1003)िंसवयः(cid:1298)(cid:1197)करं तथा।
च(cid:200)(cid:1289)ु ंबहृं णंव(cid:1289)ृ ंभषे जंतिसायनम।्17
13 This variation is already found in fication is not defined further, but prob-
Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya, Uttarasthāna 39.2 and ablymeansthatthepatienthasundergone
Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha, Uttarasthāna 49.2. The emesis and purgation. Later texts add
reading is also adopted in Siddhayoga self-restraintandblood-lettingtotheneces-
69.2–3, Bhāvaprakāśa, Uttarakhaṇḍa 2.2–3 sarypreparationsforrasāyanatherapy. For
and Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī, Uttarakhaṇḍa 73.1. example,Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā,Uttarasthāna
A slightly different reading is found in 39.3 reads: पवू (cid:565) वयिस म(cid:1001)े वा त(cid:922)यो(cid:789)ं िजता-
Vaṅgasenasaṃhitā 77.371–372: वाि(cid:655)(cid:1615)(cid:973) ूणतां मनः। ि(cid:1310)(cid:240)ध(cid:1319) ॐतु र(cid:619)(cid:1319) िवश(cid:973)ु (cid:1319) च सवथ(cid:128) ा॥ ३॥
का(cid:1615)(cid:1023) लभतऽे (cid:1078)ाऽसायनात्(372cd). And an “Itshouldbeappliedinearlyormiddleage
alternativereadingisfoundinYogaratnākara toonewhohasself-restraint,alwaysafterhe
76.2: दीघम(cid:128) ्आयःु (cid:1317)(cid:1615)ृत मधे ामारो(cid:240)यंत(cid:538)णम्वयः । hasbeenoleated,hisbloodhasbeenletand
hehas been purged.” Omitting thelimita-
दहे िे(cid:1050)यबलं का(cid:1615)(cid:1023) नरो िव(cid:1044)ऽे सायनात.् A further
tionsregardingtheappropriateageforrasā-
variant is found in Rasaratnasamuccaya
yana, thereadingofthesecondhalfofthis
26.1–2, which reads “vṛṣatāṃ” for Caraka’s
verseisalsofoundinSiddhayoga,chapter69,
“praṇatiṃ.”
4.
14 See Siddhayoga 69.1; Cakradatta 66.1;
16 TheeditionoftheBhāvaprakāśausedhere
Vaṅgasenasaṃhitā 77.371; Bhaiṣajyaratnāvalī,
reads stambhakakaram instead of stambha-
Uttarakhaṇḍa73.1. Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā1.4.13
karam.Sincethisaddsonesyllabletoomany
gives a similar definition: रसायनं च त(cid:779)ये ं
to the verse, which otherwise consists of
य(cid:778)रा(cid:1244)ािधनाशन॥ं “Rasāyana is known as
eightsyllablesperquarter,Ihaveemended
thatwhichremovesdiseaseandageing(or:
ittostambhakaram.
diseasecausedbyageing).”
17 Bhāvaprakāśa, Uttarakhaṇḍa 2.1. Yoga-
15 IntheSuśrutasaṃhitā(Cikitsāsthāna27.3),
ratnākara 76.1 has the same reading as the
readying the body for rasāyana therapy in-
Bhāvaprakāśa.
cludes oleation and purification. Puri-
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
dagmar wujastyk 7
Arasāyanaisaremedythatremovesageinganddisease(or: thatre-
movesdiseasecausedbyageing)andproducesthatwhichsupports
youthfulvigour,aidseyesight,nourishes,andbestowssexualvigour.
applications
A complex picture of the variety of goals pursued with rasāyana treatment
emergeswhenwelookatthevariousrasāyanasectionsofthemedicalworksand
examine what effects are attributed totheir formulations. The described effects
of rasāyana medicines and procedures can be broadly divided into five, partly
overlapping,thematicgroups:
Lifespanandageing This includes medicines and procedures attributed
with effecting rejuvenation, anti-ageing, or the increase of lifespan. In
this context, medicines may, for example, be described as providing
life-span/vitality(āyuṣkara). Phrasesconcerningthetypicallymalepatient
often describe him as one who has a long or indeed unlimited life-span
(amitāyu); or as one who will live for a long time (jīvati kālaṃ vipulam). A
standardlifeexpectancyofonehundredyears(jīvatiśataṃvarśam)isoften
mentioned,butwealsofindseveralinstancesinwhichseveralhundredsof
yearsoflifearepromised. Theanti-ageingbenefitsofmedicinesareoften
described with expressions like “that liberates from ageing” (jarāvimukti),
or “preserving youthful vigour” (vayassthāpana). Patients are described
as “not subject to old age” (ajara), “renewed” (punarnava) and “free from
wrinkles and grey hair” (nirvalīpalita), or as “reaching youthfulness”
(yauvanameti).
Health Thisincludesmedicinesandproceduresusedforthepreventionorcure
of disease and for the establishment of overall well-being, including the
proper functioning of the body and senses. Many rasāyana formulations
are described as “destroying all disease” (sarvarogaghnin, āmayanāśana),
while the patient who takes a rasāyana medicine becomes “disease-free”
(anāmaya, aruja, niruja, vigataroga, vyādhimukta). There is also frequent
mention of specific diseases or disease groups that can be treated by
rasāyana medicines and methods. Many of these can be categorized as
diseases caused by the ageing process, or else as diseases the elderly
would be either particularly prone to or vulnerable to. However, almost
allofthenameddiseasesarealsoseriousdiseasesconsideredparticularly
challengingtotreat.18
18 See Hellwig (2008) for a discussion of chapters in the Carakasaṃhitā and Suśruta-
thediseasecategoriesfoundintherasāyana saṃhitā.
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36
8 acts of improvement
Cognitivepower This includes medicines and procedures that restore, estab-
lish or enhance memory power, memorization ability and intelligence.
Keywords here include “memory (power)” (smṛti), “intelligence” (medhā),
and “understanding” (dhī) as effects of medicines, while the patient is
supposed to become “clever” (matimat), or “intelligent” (medhāvin), or
“onewhoretainswhathehasheard”(śrutadhārin).
Virility This includes medicines and procedures which restore or enhance
sexual stamina, bodily strength and fertility. Such formulations are
describedwithtermssuchas“producingsexualvigour”(vṛṣya). Apatient
becomes “one who indulges in sexual pleasures” (kāmacārin), who has
intercoursewithonehundredwomen(strīśatānivrajati).
Specialpowers While these are only indirectly alluded to in the definitions of
rasāyana, medicines and procedures that provide the patient with bodily
andmentalperfectionandwithextraordinarycapacities,suchastheabil-
itytomanipulatetheworldaccordingtotheirwishes, frequentlyoccurin
the medical works’ rasāyana chapters.19 Bodily perfection can encompass
extraordinary beauty, but also extreme strength and agility; a stable and
firmbodythatresemblesadiamond(vajrakāya)orastone(gātramaśmavat
sthirībhavati) and that is impervious to the elements or to disease; and ex-
tremelongevity.
Rasāyanaformulationsmostoftenunitearangeofbenefitsfromseveral,and
in some cases all, thematic groups. However, there are many examples of rasā-
yana that have a specific focus or a bias towards one group, such as the “med-
hyarasāyana,”medicinesfortheimprovementofcognitivefaculties. Itisalsonot
always possible to neatly discern one group from the other. Ageing and health
could both be considered the overarching category, since the occurrence of cer-
taindiseases,orthelossofcognitiveorsensorypowersorproblemsconcerning
sexualstaminamaybeunderstoodintermsofhealthproblems,butalsointerms
ofageing,i.e.,healthproblemscausedorexacerbatedbytheageingprocess. As
wehaveseen,thesearealsothedominanttermsinthedefinitionsofrasāyanain
later medical literature, ambiguously presented in a compound (jarāvyādhivid-
hvaṃs)thatallowstounderstandthemastheseparatecategoriesof“ageingand
disease,”orasacombinedcategoryof“diseasecausedbyageing.”
The medical treatises vary in how much weight they assign to the different
elements, though there is a general bias towards addressing longevity and the
ageingprocessinallrasāyanachaptersthatIexamined. Asnotedabove,theearly
texts,i.e.,theCarakasaṃhitāandtheSuśrutasaṃhitā,differfromeachotherinthat
19 SeeDagmarWujastykforthcoming.
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 1–36