History of Industrial Gases

482 Pages·2003·19.94 MB·English

by  Ebbe Almqvist (auth.)

HISTORY OF
INDUSTRIAL GASES
HISTORY OF
INDUSTRIAL GASES
Ebbe Almqvist
Ebbe Almqvist Consulting
Sweden
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Almqvist, Ebbe.
History of industrial gaseslby Ebbe Almqvist.
p. cm.
lncludes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4613-4962-4 ISBN 978-1-4615-0197-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-0197-8
1. Gases-History. 1. Title.
TP242 .A38 2002
665.7'09-dc2l
2002066906
ISBN 978-1-4613-4962-4
©2oo3 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Origina\ly published by Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. New York in 2003
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1s t edition 2003
http://www.wkap.nl/
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
A c.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
AII rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, ar otherwise, without written
pennission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of
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PREFACE
All history goes to show that the progress of society has invariably been on
lines quite different from those laid down in advance, and generally by reasons
of inventions and discoveries which few or none had expected.
1. H. Beadle, 1893
The history of industrial gases is a story that starts at the dawn of science and
continues to today's huge global industry, which plays a role in almost every area of
life.
This book gives an overview of the history of gases, from the ancient theories
of mysterious "airs", to the discovery and development of different gases, to their
present production and application procedures. Such an understanding is essential for
people involved in the gas industry and should also be of interest for anyone curious
about how our environment came to be known, investigated, and developed.
The historical development of industrial gas technology and business and its
impact on society during the last century is treated in particular detail. Current pro
duction, distribution, and applications of gases are based on discoveries and devel
opments in different areas of science and technology. This aspect of the book may be
especially valuable for engineering and marketing staff in industrial gas companies
and for their customers. The uses of gases range from those of steelworks, which use
thousands of tons of oxygen per day, to those of semiconductor fabrication plants,
which may handle kilogram quantities of high-purity specialty gases.
Just as interesting as the applications are the ways in which the gases are man
ufactured. Even to people with some familiarity with industrial gas production
methods, it is remarkable that liquid oxygen and nitrogen in low quantities can be
sold for around the price of milk.
The present industrial gas business may be divided into the "on-site market", in
which gas is made for an individual user and produced on or adjacent to the cus
tomer's operation site and delivered by pipeline for immediate consumption, and the
"merchant gases market," the bulk and cylinder business, in which the products are
made at a central location and transported in pipelines, tankers, cylinders, and
insulated flasks to thousands of applications in many customers' facilities.
On-site production of industrial gases is now feasible even for smaller con
sumption due to new production methods. This reduces costs for customers because
v
vi Preface
of the reduction of transportation costs. Such plants are owned and run by industrial
gas companies and customers do not have to worry about the capital cost of equip
ment or personnel to operate the plant. Today, the on-site market makes up at least
20 percent of the worldwide industrial gas business. It is the fastest growing segment
and is expected to continue to expand with a very high growth rate in the next decades.
The driving forces for the present growth of the business are:
• Environmental protection. The stricter emissions regulations in more and
more countries have made environmental protection an especially important
issue. Environmental applications and technology have been extremely
important since improved processes of water treatment or purification of
waste air have been developed. Furthermore, environmental pressures in
developed countries have forced petrochemical plants to shift to the substi
tution of oxygen for air.
• New geographic areas. Additional opportunities are being afforded due to the
industrialization of the developing world, particularly Asia and Latin
America, where basic steelmaking and chemical capacity is being built.
• Higher purity, quality, and efficiency in industrial processes. Greater purity of
gas is required in such areas as electronics and special optical manufactur
ing. Quality foods require particularly high product purity. For example,
rapid freezing using liquid nitrogen preserves the fresh taste of shrimp. Food
handling, such as transporting, freezing, packaging, and storing, is also a
growth area for gases. New and expanding areas for gases include control of
the ripening of fruits and high-pressure extraction applications in areas such
as fruit juice production and decaffeination of coffee.
Acknowledgements
The compilation of a broad history like this one would not have been possible
without assistance from specialists in the different subjects treated. Many colleagues
in the major industrial gas companies have influenced, encouraged, and otherwise
contributed positively to the writing of this book.
Because much company archive material was destroyed during the world wars,
there is a lack of much historical evidence of when and how the industrial gas busi
nesS started and developed in different countries (see Chapter 6). I have made every
effort to provide the most accurate information available, but the record is not com
plete. I have, however, received much information on how the global business was
created through interviews, discussions, and e-mails.
Without singling out any individuals, I would like to express my gratitude for
their support to all who contributed their time and expertise.
I would, however, like to specifically thank my former AGA colleague John
Campbell and his staff at JR Campbell & Associates, Lexington, Massachusetts, for
helping me turn my original manuscript into a book.
Ebbe Almqvist
October 2001
FOREWORD: HISTORY OF
INDUSTRIAL GASES
This marvelous book tracks the history of industrial gases from some of the
very earliest theories of gases by Aristotle, through the observation and discovery of
gases by some of the great scientists of the past 500 years, through discovery of oxygen
by Scheele and Priestley in the 1770s, and further to current and anticipated devel
opments in related gas products, production technologies, market uses and unique
applications. A great deal of attention is paid by author Ebbe Almqvist to the major
players who have built up this industry which produces and distributes and provides
many unique customer services - like supplying liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, liquid
hydrogen and liquid helium to NASA's Space Shuttle, and keeping the super sophis
ticated medical diagnostic system, MRI, topped off with liquid helium.
This book has taken Ebbe a decade of painstaking research gathering of some
of the little known facts of our industry's development, and working with a large
number of people to provide some wonderful drawings and photos of aspects of our
industry and its development.
This is the very first work of its kind about our industry and provides great
background reading for newcomers to our industry and to old hands who continue
vii
viii Foreword
to wonder how this fascinating business came to be so much a part of all of our lives,
in industry, medicine, science and commerce. It is particularly appropriate at this time
as several of the major companies which have built this specialized industry are cel
ebrating being at or over the century mark in business.
1. R. Campbell
Publisher, Cryogas International
CONTENTS
1. History of Gases: Introduction 1
Discoveries in England by Priestley, Black, Cavendish, and
Rutherford 1
Sweden and Scheele 2
It All Begins with Ancient Theories and Alchemy 2
Paracelsus and Hydrogen Gas 3
The Defense of Alchemy 4
What Happened to the Newly Discovered Gases and Their
Discoverers? 4
The Liquefaction of Gas 5
References 6
2. From Aristotle to the Birth of Modern Chemistry 7
2.1. From Aristotle to the Birth of Pneumatic Chemistry 7
Ancient Theories 7
Iatrochemistry 9
The Phlogiston Theory 18
References 19
2.2. The Discovery of Gases and the True Nature of
Combustion 19
Carbon Dioxide 19
Hydrogen 20
Nitrogen 22
Oxygen 23
Laughing Gas, NzO 25
Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water 26
The Birth of Modern Chemistry 27
References 30
2.3. Biographies of the Early Pioneers in the Study of Gases 30
Paracelsus 30
Johann Baptista van Helmont 31
Otto von Guericke 32
ix
x Contents
Robert Hooke 33
Johann Joachim Becher 33
Georg Ernst Stahl 34
Robert Boyle 34
John Mayow 35
Stephen Hales 36
Joseph Black 37
Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov 37
Joseph Priestley 38
Carl Wilhelm Scheele 40
Daniel Rutherford 41
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier 42
Henry Cavendish 43
William Ramsay 44
References 45
3. Industrial Gases: Background 47
3.1. Hydrogen: The Gas That Had a Flying Start 47
The Dream of Flight 47
The Discovery of Hydrogen 48
Hydrogen: "Inflammable Air" as Fuel 48
Lighter-Than-Air Experiments 49
Methods of Production 52
Hydrogen Airships 55
Twentieth-Century Applications 57
Short Biographies 63
References 63
3.2. Oxygen: "Fire Air" 64
Background 64
The Discovery 64
A New Theory of Combustion 65
Production of Oxygen 65
Liquid Air 68
Oxygen Applications: The Use of Oxygen during the Nineteenth
Century 71
Medical Applications 74
Modern Applications for Oxygen 75
Short Biographies 81
References 82
3.3. Nitrogen: "Rotten Air" and Its Challenges 82
Background: Nitrogen and Saltpeter in Agriculture 82
Production of Fertilizers 85
Other Industrial Applications for Nitrogen 87
Contents xi
Environmental Problems of Nitrogen 89
The Nitrogen Challenge 90
Short Biographies 92
References 92
3.4. Carbon Dioxide: Spiritus Sylvestre 93
Background: Spiritus Sylvestre 93
Carbon Dioxide: Its Discovery and First Uses 93
Carbonated Water: Coca-Cola, Schweppes, Ginger Ale, etc. 94
Liquid Carbon Dioxide 95
Modem CO Applications 101
2
Carbon Dioxide Production 104
Short Biographies 108
References 108
3.5. Acetylene: The Gas That Triggered the Industrial Gas
Business 108
Background 108
The Discovery of the Acetylene Process 109
The Birth of Industrial Acetylene 110
The Introduction of Acetylene in Europe 111
Dissous Gas 112
Early Applications 113
Frank-Caro Process 117
Acetylene Chemistry 117
Short Biographies 122
References 122
3.6. The Noble Gases: An Inactive Family of Great Importance 123
Background 123
Discovery 123
Applications for the Noble Gases 126
Helium Production 128
Other Helium Uses and Markets 131
Liquid Helium 131
Helium Conservation in the United States 134
Short Biographies 134
References 135
4. The Development of Industrial Gas Technology 137
4.1. Liquefaction of Gases 137
Early Liquefaction 137
Development of Cryotechnology Up to 1910 140
The Start of Industrial Air Gas Liquefaction 141
Production and Use of Liquefied Gases 145
References 153