Table Of ContentHINDUISM IN CYBERSPACE
By
BRADLEY STERLING ACKROYD
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
2006
Copyright 2006
by
Bradley Sterling Ackroyd
ACKNOWLEDMENTS
This thesis is dedicated to my older brother, Norm, whose lifelong love for
computers and science fiction novels was the genesis of my own interest in cyberspace
and technology. His technical advice and assistance with this thesis was invaluable.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
ACKNOWLEDMENTS....................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1
2 CYBERSPACE AND SACRED SPACE.....................................................................9
Definition and Significance of the Internet................................................................9
Religion and the Internet..........................................................................................17
Taxonomy of Hindu-Related Sites...........................................................................21
Authority and Unity in a Global Context.................................................................31
Concluding Remarks................................................................................................36
3 THE DOMAINS OF HINDU TEMPLES IN AMERICA.........................................38
Assimilation, Accretion, and Adaption....................................................................38
Temple Culture.........................................................................................................39
Ecumenical Tendencies and Temple Names............................................................41
Website Aesthetics and Technology........................................................................47
Little India ..........................................................................................................48
Seva, Dana, and Temple Budgets............................................................................52
Promotion and Advertisement..................................................................................58
4 VASUDHAIVA KUTUMBAKAM: HINDU STUDENTS COUNCIL
ACTIVITIES ONLINE..............................................................................................63
Ethnic Preservation and Generational Conflict........................................................63
Hindu Students Council (HSC)................................................................................66
Hindu Students Council on the World Wide Web...................................................68
Website Aesthetics and Technology........................................................................75
Interactivity and Community...................................................................................78
Concluding Remarks................................................................................................84
iv
5 VIRTUAL REALITIES: VIRTUAL RITUAL AND CYBERCOMMUNITY.........87
A Satguru's Cybercall...............................................................................................87
Embodiment and Authenticity.................................................................................88
Virtual Ritual ..........................................................................................................94
CyberCommunities.................................................................................................101
Concluding Remarks..............................................................................................116
6 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................118
APPENDIX
A COMPLETE LIST OF ALL TEMPLE WEBSITES USED IN STUDY.................124
B TEMPLES WITH GENERAL, ECUMENICAL NAMES......................................127
C TEMPLES WITH DEITY OR LINEAGE SPECIFIC NAMES..............................129
D LIST OF HSC CHAPTERS OBSERVED...............................................................131
E EMAIL QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................................133
F HSC CHAPTERS EMAILED THE QUESTIONNAIRE........................................134
G HSC LOGO..............................................................................................................135
H DISCUSSION ON FAITH.......................................................................................136
I DEVANAGARI-STYLED FONT............................................................................138
LIST OF REFERENCES.................................................................................................139
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...........................................................................................143
v
Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School
of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
HINDUISM IN CYBERSPACE
By
Bradley Sterling Ackroyd
May 2006
Chair: Vasudha Narayanan
Major Department: Religion
Much like a Venn diagram—with Hinduism, America, and the Internet as the three
circles—this thesis explores the relationship and intersection of American Hinduism in
cyberspace. The focus is on how the Internet is used by Hindus in America, though this
question must be explored in the larger context of Hindu migration and adaption to
America. The Internet is a primary tool used by Hindu communities to maintain broad
suburban networks and communities, particularly built around the temples and
community centers. Therefore, the Internet is shaping Hindu communities in America by
allowing massive, simultaneous communication among large groups of practitioners and
extended families. However, the Internet also reflects adaptations and transformations
that Hindus developed in becoming part of the American melting pot.
As Hindus migrated to America and assimilated into American culture, certain
elements of their religious practice have inevitably been dropped, while other aspects are
transformed and retained. American Hinduism tends to be ecumenical, simultaneously
representing many various Hindu traditions, in an inclusive effort to bring many
vi
immigrant minority Indians together as a unified group. Such unity provides a support
network and social community, and is fundamental to the process of migration.
However, some skeptics are concerned that this ecumenical tendency is creating a
generic, Brahminical ideology that breeds Hindutva ideals and revisionist histories. While
Hinduvta elements have indeed seeped into the American cultural and religious bricolage,
and found a new home in cyberspace, my study indicates that the orthodoxy and
Hindutva are only one portion of Hinduism in cyberspace and America; and a relatively
small portion, at that. To the contrary, the Internet provides of multiplication of voices,
allowing many diverse individuals to express their beliefs and experiences. As the
Internet continues to increase in usage and significance, it will continue to generate and
reflect the diversity of Hinduism, and the many global variations in practice and belief.
vii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Much like a Venn diagram—with Hinduism, America, and the Internet as the three
circles—this thesis explores the relationship and intersection of American Hinduism in
cyberspace. The focus is on how the Internet is used by Hindus in America, though this
question must be explored in the larger context of Hindu migration and adaption1. The
Internet is a primary tool used by American Hindu communities to maintain broad
suburban networks and communities (particularly those built around temples and
community centers). Therefore, the Internet is shaping Hindu communities in America by
allowing massive, simultaneous communication among large groups of practitioners and
extended families. However, the Internet also reflects adaptations and transformations
Hindus have developed in becoming part of the American melting pot. During Hindu
assimilation2 into American culture, certain elements of their religious practice have
inevitably been dropped, while other aspects are retained and transformed. American
Hinduism tends to be ecumenical, simultaneously representing various Hindu traditions,
in an inclusive effort to bring minority Indians together as a unified group. Such unity
provides a support network and social community, and is fundamental to the process of
migration. For this reason, many scholars, including Raymond Brady Williams, refer to
the American form of Hinduism as ‘Ecumenical Hinduism’.
1 I have, rather unreflectively, used the terms adaption and adaptation as synonymous words referring to the
general process of retaining and modifying Indian cultural elements in America.
2 I have used the term assimilation to mean the gradual process that migrant non-resident Indians adopt
American customs and attitudes.
1
The seeds for ecumenical, inclusive attitudes and shared sacred worship are not a
uniquely American dimension of Hinduism, with India having a long history of religious
diversity and inclusivity. Indian Muslims, Sikhs and varieties of Hindus have shared
sacred places of worship in India, and this seems to have prepared many Indians for
inclusive shared worship in the American melting pot.
However, some skeptics are concerned that this ecumenical tendency is creating a
generic, Sanskritized ideology that (in some contexts) breeds Hindutva ideals and
revisionist histories. While Hindutva elements have indeed seeped into the American
cultural and religious bricolage, and found a new home in cyberspace, my study indicates
that orthodoxy and Hindutva are only one portion of American Hinduism in cyberspace;
and a relatively small portion, at that. American (Ecumenical) Hinduism does not
represent a homogenization of history and ideals built along anti-Muslim ideology, but
rather a hybridized transformation built around general commonalities. The Internet
supplements this diversity by providing a multiplication of voices, allowing many
individuals to express their beliefs and experiences, and offers a forum to discuss their
challenges and solutions. As the Internet continues to increase in usage and significance,
it will likewise continue to generate and reflect the diversity and flexibility of Hinduism,
and the many global and individual variations in practice and belief.
Chapter 1 analyzes central issues involved with religion in cyberspace, and
attempts to answer key questions regarding the possibility for performing religion online.
I then outline the various types of websites relating to Hinduism, focusing on the various
degrees of information and interaction provided and allowed by the Internet. The
dynamics of Internet communication are different from other forms of communication,
2
and cyberspace presents distinct limitations as well as new benefits. How Hinduism is
constructed online, and who controls this information, is a central concern of this chapter.
Chapter 2 explores the various websites for Hindu temples in America, analyzing
the function of the Internet and what can be learned about Hinduism in America from the
World Wide Web. The Internet actually reflects the ecumenical nature of American
Hinduism, and the various strategies and technologies of assimilation. Temple activities
and services are promoted through their web sites, and list-serves function as a tool for
outreach and networking. Furthermore, the Internet provides an efficient means for
generating temple membership, funds, volunteer service and community support
programs.
Chapter 3 analyzes the websites of the various chapters of the Hindu Students
Council (HSC), and explores the same ecumenical dynamics. Differences in culture and
values between the first-generation migrant parents and their American-born children
create distinct challenges that are worked out in the home, temple community and within
the childrens’ social group of peers. The HSC presents a forum for these American-born
Hindus to discuss these difficulties on their own terms, and build a student community
for support. Though the HSC is officially part of the Vishva Hindu Parishad in America
(VHPA), each chapter is individually managed and operated by students from each
campus, with little oversight from the national HSC office or the VHPA. Furthermore,
emphasis on the performing arts, social engagements and discussions about interracial
dating show us that these are not young Hindutvavadins, but rather young adults working
out difficult issues relating to minority status, generational conflicts with their parents
and elders, and challenges of being Hindu in a Christian majority nation.
3
Description:4 VASUDHAIVA KUTUMBAKAM: HINDU STUDENTS COUNCIL .. Hinduism, and the various strategies and technologies of assimilation. Temple
