High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering: Fundamentals, Technologies, Challenges and Applications

398 Pages·2019·20.716 MB·English

by  Daniel Lundin (editor), Tiberiu Minea (editor), Jon Tomas Gudmundsson (editor)

High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering

High Power Impulse
Magnetron Sputtering
Fundamentals, Technologies, Challenges
and Applications
Edited by
Daniel Lundin
Laboratoire de Physique des Gaz et Plasmas - LPGP
UMR 8578 CNRS, Université Paris–Sud
Université Paris–Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
Tiberiu Minea
Laboratoire de Physique des Gaz et Plasmas - LPGP
UMR 8578 CNRS, Université Paris–Sud
Université Paris–Saclay, Orsay Cedex, France
Jon Tomas Gudmundsson
Department of Space and Plasma Physics
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
Science Institute, University of Iceland
Reykjavik, Iceland
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Contents
Contributors xi
Preface xiii
1 Introductiontomagnetronsputtering 1
JonTomasGudmundsson,DanielLundin
1.1 Fundamentalsofsputtering 1
1.1.1 DCglowdischarge 2
1.1.2 Electricalbreakdown 8
1.1.3 Thecathodesheath 10
1.1.4 Secondaryelectronemission 11
1.1.5 Electronenergydistributionfunction 14
1.1.6 Electricpotentials 15
1.1.7 Sputteryield 16
1.1.8 Energydistributionofsputteredatoms 18
1.1.9 Collisionsingases 19
1.1.10DCglowsputtersource 22
1.2 Magnetronsputtering 23
1.2.1 DCmagnetronsputtering 25
1.2.2 Additionofmagneticfields 25
1.2.3 Electronconfinementandtargetutilization 26
1.2.4 Electronheating 27
1.3 Magnetronsputteringconfigurations 30
1.3.1 Balancedandunbalancedmagnetrons 31
1.3.2 Rotatingmagnetrons 31
1.4 Pulsedmagnetrondischarges 32
1.4.1 Definitionofpulsedmagnetronsputteringdischarges 33
1.4.2 Asymmetricbipolarmid-frequencypulsing 34
1.4.3 Magnetronsputteringwithasecondarydischarge 36
1.4.4 Highpowerimpulsemagnetronsputtering 37
1.4.5 Modulatedpulsepowermagnetronsputtering 38
1.4.6 Summary 38
References 39
2 Hardwareandpowermanagementforhighpowerimpulse
magnetronsputtering 49
ZdeneˇkHubicˇka,JonTomasGudmundsson,PetterLarsson,
DanielLundin
2.1 Briefhistoryofhighpowerpulsedmagnetronsputtering 49
vi Contents
2.2 Pulsegenerators 52
2.2.1 Basicpulsegenerators 52
2.2.2 Thyristor-diode-basedpulsers 55
2.2.3 IGBT-basedpulsers 57
2.2.4 Pre-ionization 63
2.2.5 Pulsedelay 63
2.3 Substratebias 64
2.3.1 Biassolutions 64
2.3.2 SynchronizedpulsedHiPIMSbias 68
2.4 AdvancedHiPIMSconfigurations 69
2.4.1 Multicathodeconfigurations 69
2.4.2 Superposition 71
2.4.3 Pulsetrains/multipulses/choppedpulses 74
2.4.4 Summary 75
References 75
3 Electrondynamicsinhighpowerimpulsemagnetronsputtering
discharges 81
MartinCˇada,JonTomasGudmundsson,DanielLundin
3.1 Techniquesforcharacterizingplasmaelectrons 81
3.1.1 Langmuirprobe 82
3.1.2 Emissiveprobe 86
3.1.3 Tripleprobe 88
3.2 Fundamentalelectroncharacteristics 91
3.2.1 Electronenergy,density,andtemperature 91
3.2.2 Plasmaexpansionandreflection 94
3.3 Influenceoftargetmaterialandworkinggas 95
3.3.1 Electronenergy,densityandtemperature 95
3.3.2 Plasmapotential 98
3.3.3 Reactiveplasmas 102
3.4 Multiplesourcesandhybridsystems 103
3.4.1 Electronpropertiesinmultisourcesystems 103
3.4.2 Electronpropertiesinhybridsystems 104
References 106
4 Heavyspeciesdynamicsinhighpowerimpulsemagnetron
sputteringdischarges 111
MartinCˇada,NikolayBritun,AnteHecimovic,JonTomasGudmundsson,
DanielLundin
4.1 Theplasmaions 111
4.1.1 Techniquesforcharacterizingplasmaions 112
4.1.1.1Energy-resolvedmassspectrometry 112
4.1.1.2Retardingfieldenergyanalyzers 115
4.1.1.3Modifiedquartzcrystalmicrobalance(ionmeter) 116
4.1.1.4Laser-basedmethodsforiondetection 118
Contents vii
4.1.2 Spatialandtemporaldistributionofionsinthebulkplasma 118
4.1.3 Ionenergydistributioninthevicinityofthesubstrate 123
4.1.3.1Time-averagedIEDF 124
4.1.3.2Time-resolvedIEDF 127
4.1.3.3ReactiveHiPIMS 127
4.1.3.4Time-evolutionoftheionflux 130
4.1.4 Ionizedfractionofdepositingparticles 132
4.1.5 IonizedfluxfractioninHiPIMS 133
4.1.5.1ReactiveHiPIMSdischarges 136
4.1.5.2Hybridsystems 137
4.1.5.3Influenceofthemagneticfield 138
4.1.5.4Massspectrometryresults 139
4.1.6 Ionizeddensityfraction 140
4.2 Theplasmaneutrals 141
4.2.1 Spatialandtemporalevolutionofplasmaneutrals 141
4.2.2 Gasrarefaction 146
References 151
5 Modelingthehighpowerimpulsemagnetronsputteringdischarge 159
TiberiuMinea,TomášKozák,ClaudiuCostin,JonTomasGudmundsson,
DanielLundin
5.1 Modelingapproaches 159
5.1.1 Pathwaymodels 160
5.1.2 Steady-stateglobalmodels 162
5.1.2.1Ionizationandreturnofsputteredtargetmaterial 162
5.1.2.2Depositionparameters 163
5.1.2.3Limitationsofthisapproach 165
5.1.3 Time-dependentglobalmodel,IRM 165
5.1.3.1Particlebalance 166
5.1.3.2Neutralparticlebalance 168
5.1.3.3Ionparticlebalance 171
5.1.3.4Electronbalance 172
5.1.3.5Powerbalance 172
5.1.3.6Plasmachemistry 175
5.1.4 Particle-in-cell 177
5.1.4.1ChallengesofHiPIMSPICsimulations 179
5.1.4.2Pseudo-3DPIC 183
5.1.5 MonteCarlosimulations 184
5.1.5.1MonteCarlocollisionsimulations 185
5.1.5.2MonteCarlosimulationofneutralparticletransport 185
5.1.5.3DirectsimulationMonteCarlo(DSMC)forneutral
particlestransport 186
5.1.5.4AposterioriMonteCarlo 187
5.1.6 Othermodels 188
5.1.6.1Afeedbackmodel 188
5.1.6.2EEDFassolutionofBoltzmann’sequation 189
5.1.6.3Modelsforspokes 190
viii Contents
5.2 Importantmodelingresults 192
5.2.1 Depositionrate 192
5.2.2 Currentandvoltagewaveforms 195
5.2.2.1Time-dependentglobalmodels 196
5.2.2.2Self-consistentPICmodel 201
5.2.3 Time-dependentplasmaproperties 202
5.2.3.1Temporalevolutionofneutralandchargedspecies 202
5.2.3.2Excitedstatesevolution 207
5.2.3.3Electronenergydistributionfunction(EEDF) 208
5.2.3.4Ionenergydistributionfunction(IEDF) 211
5.2.3.5Electrontransportcoefficientsandplasma
deconfinement 212
References 214
6 Reactivehighpowerimpulsemagnetronsputtering 223
TomášKubart,JonTomasGudmundsson,DanielLundin
6.1 Introductiontoreactivesputterdeposition 223
6.1.1 Workingpoint 224
6.1.2 Processcontrol 227
6.2 Fundamentalsofreactivesputtering 227
6.2.1 Moleculargasandplasmachemistry 228
6.2.2 Secondaryelectronemission 231
6.2.3 Sputteryieldsforcompounds 232
6.2.4 Reactivegasimplantationandthicknessofthecompound
layer 235
6.2.5 Balance(Berg)modelofhysteresisreactivesputtering 236
6.3 HysteresisinreactiveHiPIMS 240
6.3.1 Experimentalobservations 241
6.3.2 Dynamicsofthehysteresis 244
6.3.3 ModelsofhysteresisinreactiveHiPIMS 245
6.4 ImportantaspectsofreactiveHiPIMS 246
6.4.1 Dischargewaveforms 247
6.4.2 Processstabilityanddepositionrate 249
6.4.3 Dynamicsofthesputtertargetsurface 250
6.4.4 Plasmacharacteristicsinthemetalandcompoundmode 253
6.4.5 NegativeionsinR-HiPIMS 256
References 257
7 Physicsofhighpowerimpulsemagnetronsputteringdischarges 265
DanielLundin,AnteHecimovic,TiberiuMinea,AndréAnders,
NilsBrenning,JonTomasGudmundsson
7.1 Thedischargecurrent 265
7.1.1 Thedischargecurrentcomposition 266
7.2 Dischargemodes 269
7.2.1 Thedischargecurrentamplitude 270
Contents ix
7.2.1.1Thegeneralizedrecyclingmodel(GRM) 272
7.2.1.2Dischargeanalysis 276
7.2.2 Temporalevolutionofthedischargecurrent 280
7.2.3 Ohmicheatingversussheathacceleration 288
7.3 Transportofchargedparticles 289
7.3.1 Classicalionandneutralspeciestransport 291
7.3.1.1Iontransport 291
7.3.1.2Classicalelectrontransport 294
7.3.2 Anomaloustransport 296
7.3.2.1Anomalouselectrontransport 296
7.3.2.2Anomalousiontransport 298
7.4 PlasmaInstabilities 300
7.4.1 Spokesandbreathinginstabilitiesinmagnetronsputtering
discharges 301
7.4.2 Thepotentialstructure 308
7.4.3 Effectofspokesonchargedparticletransport 311
7.4.3.1Transportnearthetarget 311
7.4.3.2Transportinthebulkplasma 312
7.4.3.3Transportnearthesubstrate 314
7.5 Depositionrate 315
7.5.1 Physicsofdepositionrateloss 316
7.5.2 Increasingthedepositionrate 320
7.5.3 DepositionratesinreactiveHiPIMS 323
References 323
8 Synthesisofthinfilmsandcoatingsbyhighpowerimpulse
magnetronsputtering 333
KostasSarakinos,LudvikMartinu
8.1 Introductiontothefundamentalsofthinfilmgrowth 333
8.1.1 Thinfilmgrowthfromanatomisticpointofview 333
8.1.2 Effectofenergeticionsonthinfilmmicrostructuralevolution 337
8.1.3 Effectofpulsedvaporfluxesonthinfilmgrowthdynamics 337
8.2 Depositiononcomplex-shapedsubstrates 339
8.3 Interfaceengineering 341
8.4 Thinfilmmicrostructureandmorphology 343
8.4.1 Filmdensityandsurfaceroughness 344
8.4.2 Filmtextureandmorphologicalevolution 345
8.4.3 Synthesisofself-organizednanostructures 348
8.5 Stressgenerationandevolution 349
8.5.1 Atomisticviewonstressgenerationandevolution 350
8.5.2 Effectofhighlyionizedfluxesonstressgenerationevolution 351
8.5.3 TailoringofstressinopticalcoatingsbyHiPIMS 353
8.6 Phasecomposition 354
8.6.1 Phasecompositiontailoringinelementalthinfilmmaterials:
theTacase 355