Table Of ContentHigh Performance Materials in
Aerospace
High Performance Materials
in Aerospace
Edited by
Harvey M. Flower
Professor of Materials Science
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine
London, UK
UI11
I
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
First edition 1995
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1995
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1995
Typset in 10/12 Times by Pure Tech Corporation, Pondicherry, India
ISBN 978-94-010-4296-3 ISBN 978-94-011-0685-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-0685-6
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The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard
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that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-68243
8
Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with
ANSIINISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper).
Contents
List of contributors ix
Preface xi
1 Design requirements for aerospace structural materials 1
c.J. Peel and PoI. Gregson
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Properties that affect structural efficiency ab initio 3
1.3 Properties affecting cost of ownership 25
1.4 Cost-effective design 45
1.5 Concluding remarks 47
References 48
2 Aluminium alloys: physical metallurgy, processing and
properties P.J. Gregson 49
2.1 Introduction 49
2.2 Aluminium alloys: processing and properties 50
2.3 Conventional aerospace aluminium alloys 64
2.4 Advanced aerospace aluminium alloys 72
2.5 Conclusions 83
References 83
Further reading 83
3 Titanium alloys: production, behaviour and application 85
J. C. Williams
3.1 Introduction 85
3.2 Brief summary of the metallurgy of conventional Ti alloys 86
3.3 The production of Ti alloys and Ti alloy components 92
3.4 The mechanical behaviour and properties of common
Ti alloys 104
vi Contents
3.5 Ti-based intermetallic compounds 127
3.6 Summary 132
Acknowledgements 132
References 132
Further reading 133
4 Nickel-based alloys: recent developments for the aero-gas
turbine M. McLean 135
4.1 Background 135
4.2 Alloy constitution and development trends 137
4.3 Processing developments 142
4.4 Microstructure and high temperature deformation 145
4.5 Turbine disk applications 148
4.6 Future prospects 153
References 154
5 Structural steels D.P. Davies 155
5.1 Introduction 155
5.2 Gear steels 155
5.3 Bearing steels 166
5.4 Ultra high strength steels 174
Acknowledgements 180
References 180
6 Ceramic materials in aerospace D.M. Dawson 182
6.1 Introduction 182
6.2 Monolithic and toughened ceramics 183
6.3 Composite ceramics 193
7 Polymeric-based composite materials N. Marks 203
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Reinforcements 203
7.3 Matrices 210
7.4 Interface 213
7.5 Processing 215
7.6 Properties 223
7.7 Joining composites 224
7.8 Non-destructive testing (NDT) 224
7.9 Advantages of composite materials 224
8 Metal-based composite materials H. M. Flower 227
8.1 Introduction 227
8.2 Metal-ceramic composites 228
8.3 Laminates 235
Contents vii
8.4 Cost 236
8.5 Applications 237
8.6 Appendix 239
References 245
9 Superplastic forming D. Stephen 246
9.1 Introduction 246
9.2 Superplasticity and its characteristics 247
9.3 Aerospace superplastic alloys 258
9.4 Post-superplastic straining mechanical properties 261
9.5 Superplastic forming (SPF) 262
9.6 Advantages of SPF in aerospace structural
design/manufacture 267
9.7 Aerospace applications of SPF 268
9.8 SPF/DB 270
9.9 Advantages of SPF/DB in aerospace structural
design/manufacture 276
9.10 Aerospace applications of SPF/DB 276
9.11 Background to the application of SPF and SPF/DB in
aerospace 277
References 281
10 Joining advanced materials by diffusion bonding 283
P. G. Partridge and A. Wisbey
10.1 Introduction 283
10.2 Diffusion bonding mechanisms 285
10.3 Effect of surface roughness and contamination on bond
interface defects 289
10.4 Testing of diffusion bonded joints 291
10.5 Diffusion bonding techniques of metals 294
10.6 Diffusion bonding of intermetallics 303
10.7 Diffusion bonding of ceramics 303
10.8 Diffusion bonding of composites 305
10.9 Diffusion bonding of dissimilar metallic materials 307
10.10 Diffusion bonding of metastable alloys 309
10.11 Manufacture of components by diffusion bonding
techniques 310
10.12 Conclusions 315
Acknowledgements 316
References 316
11 Adhesive bonding for aerospace applications D. Driver 318
11.1 Introduction 318
11.2 Bonded wooden aircraft 319
Vlll Contents
11.3 Principles of bonding 321
11.4 Aerospace adhesive types 323
11.5 Surface treatments 329
11.6 Design of bonded joints 333
References 338
12 Rapid solidification and powder technologies for aerospace 340
H. Jones
12.1 Introduction 340
12.2 Production technologies 341
12.3 Effects on microstructure 346
12.4 Benefits of rapid solidification for
aerospace applications 351
12.5 Conclusions 353
References 353
13 Hot isostatic processing B.A. Rickinson and S. Andrews 357
13.1 Introduction 357
13.2 Removal of porosity 361
13.3 Benefits of HIP 361
13.4 Applications of HIP 362
13.5 Powder products 368
13.6 Diffusion bonding 371
13.7 Other applications 372
Index 375
Contributors
S. Andrews
HIP Ltd, Chesterfield, UK
D. P. Davies
Materials Laboratory, Westland Helicopters Ltd, Yeovil, UK
D. M. Dawson
Rolls-Royce pIc, Derby, UK
D. Driver
Centre for Adhesive Technology, Abingdon Hall, Cambridge, UK
H. M. Flower
Department of Materials, Imperial College of Science, Technology
and Medicine, London, UK
P. J. Gregson
Department of Engineering Materials, University of Southampton,
UK
H. Jones
Department of Materials Engineering, University of Sheffield, UK
M. McLean
Department of Materials, Imperial College of Science, Technology
and Medicine, London, UK
N. Marks
Westland Helicopters Ltd, Yeovil, UK
P. G. Partridge
Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, UK
C. J. Peel
Materials and Structures Department, Defence Research Agency,
Farnborough, UK
B. A. Rickinson
HIP Ltd, Chesterfield, UK
x Contributors
D. Stephen
IEP Structures Ltd, Holbrook works, Halfway, Sheffield, UK
J. C. Williams
Engineering Materials and Technology Laboratories, GE Aircraft
Engines, Cincinnati, USA
A. Wisbey
Materials and Structures Department, Defence Research Agency,
Farnborough, UK
Preface
Aerospace presents an extremely challenging environment for structural
materials and the development of new, or improved, materials: processes
for material and for component production are the subject of continuous
research activity. It is in the nature of high performance materials that
the steps of material and of component production should not be
considered in isolation from one another. Indeed, in some cases, the very
process of material production may also incorporate part or all of the
component production itself and, at the very least, will influence the
choice of material/component production method to be employed. How
ever, the developments currently taking place are to be discovered largely
within the confines of specialist conferences or books each dedicated to
perhaps a single element of the overall process.
In this book contributors, experts drawn from both academia and the
aerospace industry, have joined together to combine their individual
knowledge to examine high performance aerospace materials in terms of
their production, structure, properties and applications. The central
interrelationships between the development of structure through the
production route and between structure and the properties exhibited in
the final component are considered. It is hoped that the book will be of
interest to students of aeronautical engineering and of materials science,
together with those working within the aerospace industry.
Harvey M. Flower
Imperial College
