Table Of ContentHeavy Oil Recovery and Upgrading
Heavy Oil Recovery and
Upgrading
James G. Speight
Laramie, WY,United States
GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier
50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UnitedKingdom
©2019ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,
electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageand
retrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseek
permission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangements
withorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,
canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythe
Publisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchand
experiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,
ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgein
evaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.
Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafety
ofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assume
anyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,
negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,or
ideascontainedinthematerialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:978-0-12-813025-4
ForinformationonallGulfProfessionalpublicationsvisit
ourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher:BrianRomer
SeniorAcquisitionsEditor:KatieHammon
EditorialProjectManager:AleksandraPackowska
ProductionProjectManager:AnithaSivaraj
Designer:VictoriaPearson
TypesetbySPiGlobal,India
About the Author
JamesG.Speight,BSc(chemistry),PhD(chemistry),CChem.Healsoholdsa
DSc (geological sciences) anda PhD (petroleum engineering).
DrSpeightistheauthorofmorethan80booksinpetroleumscience,petro-
leumengineering,andenvironmentalsciences.FormerlytheCEOoftheWest-
ernResearchInstitute(nowanindependentconsultant),hehasservedasadjunct
professorintheDepartmentofChemicalandFuelsEngineeringattheUniver-
sityofUtahandintheDepartmentofChemistryandChemicalandPetroleum
EngineeringattheUniversityofWyoming.Inaddition,hehasalsobeenavis-
itingprofessorintheDepartmentofChemicalEngineeringatthefollowinguni-
versities: the University of Missouri-Columbia, the Technical University of
Denmark, andthe University ofTrinidad and Tobago.
DrSpeightwasawardedTheDiplomaofHonor,NationalPetroleumEngi-
neeringSociety,forOutstandingContributionstothePetroleumIndustry,1993.
HewaselectedtotheRussianAcademyofSciencesin1996andawardedthe
GoldMedalofHonorthatsameyearforoutstandingcontributionstothefieldof
petroleumsciences.HehasalsoreceivedtheScientistswithoutBordersMedal
of Honor of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 2001, the Academy also
awardedSpeighttheEinsteinMedalforoutstandingcontributionsandservice
inthefieldofgeologicalsciences.In2007,hewasalsoappointedastheMetha-
nexDistinguishedProfessor,UniversityofTrinidadandTobagoinRecognition
of Excellence inResearch.
xiii
Preface
Inspiteofthereservesofcrudeoilintightformations,conventionalcrudeoilis
a declining share of the energy reserves, and interest is turning to other
resourcessuchasheavyoil,extraheavyoil,andtarsandbitumen.Aspresented
inthisbook,heavyoildiffersfromconventionalcrudeoilbyitshigherviscosity
(resistancetoflow)atreservoirtemperatureandtheneedtoapplyenhancedoil
recovery methods. Extra heavy oil and tar sand bitumen are neither conven-
tional crude oil nor heavy oil (as defined by the United States government)
and are immobile in the deposit that requires different methods for recovery.
Extraheavyoilhassimilarpropertiestotarsandbitumenbut,becauseofarel-
ativelyhighreservoirtemperature,hassomefluidityinthereservoir.Forcon-
venience in this book, these feedstocks are collectively referred to as heavy
feedstocks.
Heavyoilandextraheavyoilhavebeenusedasrefineryfeedstocksforcon-
siderable time, usually blending with more conventional feedstocks, but have
commanded lowerprices because ofitslowerqualityrelativetoconventional
oil. Tar sand bitumen has been the subject of much development in Alberta,
Canada. These heavy feedstocks have also been available at lower prices
becauseofitslowerqualityrelativetoconventionaloil.Butbothoftheseheavy
feedstocksaresourcesofliquidfuelsandotherproductsthatareusedinlarge
amount,andbothofthesefeedstocksareusedtosupplementtosuppliesofcon-
ventional crude oil torefineries.
Thereisanimmenseresourcebase;heavyoil,extraheavyoil,andtarsand
bitumen are costlier to produce and transport.The extra production, transpor-
tation, and upgrading costs explain why the development and production of
extra heavy oil and bitumen are still limited. However, their abundance, geo-
graphicdistribution,quality,andcostswillshapetheirroleinthefutureoilsup-
ply.Nevertheless,inpreparationforthenearfutureandbeforebiofuelscanbe
processedtomeettheimpendingfuelshortage,refineriesmustandindeedare
eagertoadapttochangingcircumstancesandareamenabletotryingnewtech-
nologies that are radicallydifferent incharacter.
Currently,refineriesarealsolookingtoexploitheavy(moreviscous)feed-
stocks such as heavy oil, extra heavy oil, and tar sand bitumen provided they
havetherefinerytechnologycapableofhandlingsuchfeedstocks.Transform-
ing the higher-boiling constituents of these feedstock components into liquid
fuelsisbecominganecessity.Itisnolongerasimpleissueofmixingtheheavy
xv
xvi Preface
feedstockwithconventionalpetroleumtomakeupablendedrefineryfeedstock.
Incompatibilityissuesarisethatcan,ifnotanticipated,closedownarefineryor,
at best, a major section of the refinery. Therefore, handling such feedstocks
requires technological change, including more effective and innovative use
ofhydrogenwithinthe refinery.
Difficult-to-refine feedstocks, such as heavy oil, extra heavy oil, and tar
sand bitumen, are characterized by low API gravity (high density) and high
viscosity,highinitialboilingpoint,high-carbonresidue,highnitrogencontent,
high sulfur content, and high metal content. In addition to these properties,
the heavy feedstocks also have an increased molecular weight and reduced
hydrogen content with a relatively low content of volatile saturated and
aromatic constituents and a relatively high content of asphaltene and resin
constituents that is accompanied by a high heteroatom (nitrogen, oxygen,
sulfur, and metals) content. Thus, such feedstocks are not typically subject to
distillation unless contained in the refinery feedstock as a blend with other
crude oils.
Itisnotsurprisingthattherehasbeenagrowinginterestandresearchinthe
potential to expand enhanced oil recovery methods to heavy oil reservoirs. In
fact, during the past five decades, a variety of enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
methods have been developed and applied to mature and mostly depleted oil
reservoirs.Thesemethodsimprovetheefficiencyofoilrecoverycomparedwith
primary(pressuredepletion)andsecondary(waterflooding)oilmethods.Over-
all,enhanced oilrecovery development has expandedsuccessfully into heavy
oilrecovery,andsomeprojectsofferadditionalbenefitssuchassitesfordispos-
ing(sequestering) carbondioxideat modest costs oreven full-cycle profit.
Finally,itisessentialtorealizethatinthecurrentcontextofrecoveryoper-
ations,thereareseveralparametersthatcaninfluencepropertiesandrecovery.
Readers will find the issue extremely useful and informative as a means of
defining and understanding these parameters, the most prominent of which
are (i) the properties of the feedstock, (ii) the properties of the reservoir, and
(iii) the production method. The concept of site specificity cannot be over-
emphasized and must be given serious attention. These issues are presented
inPart Iof the book.
The limitations of processing these heavy feedstocks depend to a large
extentonthetendencyforcokeformationandthedepositionofmetalsandcoke
onthe catalyst die to the higher molecular weight (lowvolatility)and hetero-
atomcontent.However,theessentialsteprequiredofrefineriesistheupgrading
ofheavyfeedstocks.Infact,theincreasingsupplyofheavycrudeoilsisamatter
ofseriousconcernforthepetroleumindustry.Inordertosatisfythechanging
patternofproductdemand,significantinvestmentsinrefiningconversionpro-
cessesarenecessaryandwillcontinuetobenecessaryinordertoprofitablyuti-
lizetheseheavyfeedstocks.Themostefficientandeconomicalsolutiontothis
problem will depend to a large extent on individual country and company
situations.
Preface xvii
Buttherearechallengeswhenrefiningheavyfeedstockssuchasthedepo-
sitionofsolids(phaseseparation)thatisadirectconsequenceofhighasphaltene
andanyinorganicsolids.Oneofthemostnotoriouseffectsofasphaltenecon-
stituents is the pronounced tendency to form aggregates in the liquid (oil)
medium and also under unfavorable solvent conditions leading to separation
form the liquid medium. Inorganic fine solids are generally associated with
asphaltene constituents, and as a result, the separated asphaltene constituents
often contain high concentration of inorganic fine solids. The separation of
organicand/orinorganicsolidsduringprocessingposessevereproblemslead-
ingtocokinginthereactorandintherefinerylinesandcatalystdeactivation.
This issue is addressed by inclusion of a chapter on instability and
incompatibility.
Other challenges in heavy feedstock processing can be traced to the high
contentofheteroatoms(sulfur,nitrogen,andoxygen)andheavymetals(partic-
ularlynickelandvanadium).Althoughtheconcentrationoftheseelementsmay
bequitesmall,theirimpactissignificant.Forexample,thepresenceofhetero-
atoms may also be responsible for objectionable characteristics in finished
products causing environmental concerns, sothe levels ofheteroatomsin fin-
ishedproductshavetobereducedfollowingmoreandmorestringentenviron-
mentalregulations. Also, the depositionof trace heavy metals (vanadiumand
nickel) and chemisorption of nitrogen-containing compounds on the catalysts
arethemainreasonsforcatalystpassivationand/orpoisoningincatalyticoper-
ationsandthusnecessitatefrequentregenerationofthecatalystoritsreplace-
ment.These issues are presented inPart II of the book.
Thereadermightalsobesurprisedatthenumberofolderreferencesthatare
included.Thepurposeofthisistoremindthereaderthatthereismuchvaluable
workcitedintheolderliterature.Asaworkthatisstillofvalueand,eventhough
in some cases, there has been similar work performed with advanced equip-
ment,theolderworkhasstoodthetestoftime.Thisisparticularlytrueofsome
oftheolderconceptsofthechemicalandphysicalstructureofpetroleum.Many
oftheideasarestillpertinentandshouldnotbeforgottenintermsofthevalu-
ablecontributionstheyhavemadetopetroleumscienceandtechnology.How-
ever, many of the older references included in previous versions of this book
have been deleted—unavailability of the source for the general scientific
researcherandthecurrentlackofsubstantiatedsources(otherthanthefilescol-
lected by the author) have been the root cause ofsuch omissions.
Itisthepurposeofthisbooktodescribeheavyoil,extraheavyoil,andtar
sandbitumenintermsofcompositionandrecoveryfollowedbydescriptionsof
the current and future methods of refining. This book also presents viable
options to the antiquated definitions of the heavy feedstocks (heavy oil, extra
heavy oil, and tar sand bitumen) and an introduction to the various aspects
of heavy feedstock refining in order for the reader to place each feedstocks
in the correct context of properties, behavior, and refining needs. In addition,
thebookalsoincludesdescriptionsoftheenvironmentalimpactofrecovering
xviii Preface
andrefiningheavyfeedstocksaswellasthefutureoftheindustryandtheeffects
ofrefining such feedstocks on the environment.
Thebookisdesignedtobesuitableforundergraduatestudents,graduatestu-
dents,technicians,professionals,andmanagerswhoareworkingwithheavyoil
andtarsandbitumen.Eachchapterincludesalistofreferencesthatwillguide
the reader to more detailed information. In addition, a detailed glossary is so
included toassist the reader with any unknown ordifficult terminology.
James G.Speight
Laramie,WY, United States
Chapter 1
Heavy Oil, Extra Heavy Oil,
and Tar Sand Bitumen
1. Introduction
Inanytextrelatedtothepropertiesandbehavior(recoveryorrefining)ofanat-
ural resource (i.e., conventional crude oil, heavy oil, extra heavy oil, and tar
sandbitumen),itisnecessarytounderstandtheresourcefirstthroughthename
orterminologyordefinition.Terminologyisthemeansbywhichvarioussub-
jectsarenamedsothatreferencecanbemadeinconversationsandinwritings
andsothatthemeaningispassedon.Definitionsarethemeansbywhichsci-
entistsandengineerscommunicatethenatureofamaterialtoeachotherandto
theworld,througheitherthespokenorthewrittenword.Thus,thedefinitionof
amaterialcanbeextremelyimportantandhaveaprofoundinfluenceonhowthe
technicalcommunityandthepublicperceivethatmaterial.Thus,partofthetext
attemptstoalleviatemuchoftheconfusionthatexists,butitmustberemem-
bered that the terminology of crude oil is unfortunately still open to personal
choiceand historical use ofthe various names.
Recoveryandrefiningtechnologiesweredevelopedforconventionalcrude
oil,andtosomeextent,heavyoildoesnotalwaysrelatetotheissuesofproduc-
ingandrefiningextraheavyoilandtarsandbitumen—oftencollectivereferred
to (along with crude oil residua) as viscous feedstocks in many refineries
(Speight, 2013a, 2014a, 2017). While to some observers, viscosity is the key
to recovery and refining, there are other aspects of behavior that influence
recoveryandrefining.Everynewdevelopmenteventuallyrequiressomeform
ofenhancedoil recovery (EOR),which generallymeans steam,solvents, ora
combinationofbothormining.Withoutknowledgeintheseareas,therecovery
factormightbeaslittleas1%(byvolume,1%v/v)oftheoriginaloilinplace
and no more than 10%v/v ofthe total resource.
Inthecontextofthisbook,heavyoiltypicallyhasrelativelylowproportionsof
volatile compounds with low molecular weights and quite high proportions of
high-molecular-weightcompoundsoflowervolatility.Thehigh-molecular-weight
HeavyOilRecoveryandUpgrading.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813025-4.00001-5
©2019ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 3
