Heavy metal and metalloid contamination of surface and underground water : environmental, policy, and ethical issues

279 Pages·2021·15.533 MB·English

by  Abhik Gupta

Heavy Metal and Metalloid
Contamination of Surface and
Underground Water

Heavy Metal and Metalloid
Contamination of Surface and
Underground Water
Environmental, Policy, and Ethical Issues
Abhik Gupta
First edition published 2021
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Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... xiii
Author ..............................................................................................................................................xv
SECTION I Environmental Issues
Chapter 1 Heavy Metals: Defnition and Properties .....................................................................3
Metals, Metalloids, and Non-Metals ............................................................................3
“Heavy Metal”—A Debated Term ...............................................................................3
Heavy Metals or “Class B” Metals? ........................................................................3
Heavy Metals—Geochemical Bogey Men? ............................................................5
Heavy Metals—Appropriate for Music, Not for Science ........................................5
Heavy Metals and Biological Systems ....................................................................6
An Unending Debate ...............................................................................................7
Heavy Metal—A Popular Term ..............................................................................8
A Conciliatory and Consistent Defnition of Heavy Metals ...................................9
Heavy Metals and Metalloids in This Book .......................................................... 10
Properties and Major Uses of Heavy Metals .............................................................. 11
Bismuth .................................................................................................................. 11
Cadmium ............................................................................................................... 11
Chromium .............................................................................................................. 11
Copper ................................................................................................................... 12
Iron ........................................................................................................................ 12
Lead ....................................................................................................................... 12
Manganese ............................................................................................................. 13
Mercury ................................................................................................................. 13
Molybdenum .......................................................................................................... 13
Nickel ..................................................................................................................... 14
Silver ...................................................................................................................... 14
Tin .......................................................................................................................... 14
Vanadium ............................................................................................................... 15
Zinc ........................................................................................................................ 15
Elements Classifed as Metalloids .............................................................................. 15
Properties and Major Uses of Metalloids ................................................................... 16
Antimony ............................................................................................................... 16
Arsenic................................................................................................................... 16
Boron ..................................................................................................................... 16
Germanium ............................................................................................................ 16
Silicon .................................................................................................................... 16
Tellurium ............................................................................................................... 17
Occurrence and Distribution of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in the
Earth’s Crust ............................................................................................................... 17
Essential and Non-Essential Heavy Metals and Metalloids....................................... 17
v
vi Contents
Chapter 2 Geogenic Occurrence of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Surface and
Underground Water .................................................................................................... 21
Geogenic Occurrence of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Surface Water ................ 21
General Considerations ......................................................................................... 21
Heavy Metals and Metalloids from Weathering of Black Shale and Acid
Sulfate Soils ...........................................................................................................22
Geogenic Heavy Metals/Metalloids in Surface Waters in Other Areas ...............24
Role of Sediments in Heavy Metal and Metalloid Storage and
Mobilization ..........................................................................................................26
Geogenic Inputs of Heavy Metals and Metalloids into Sediments .......................26
Geogenic Arsenic in Surface Waters .....................................................................29
Geogenic Occurrence of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Groundwater ..................32
Geogenic Arsenic in Groundwater ........................................................................32
Arsenic in Groundwater and Its Mobilization ....................................................... 32
Mechanism of Arsenic Mobilization ..................................................................... 33
Contamination of “Deep” Aquifers ....................................................................... 35
Geogenic Arsenic in Other Parts of the World .....................................................36
Geogenic Occurrence of Heavy Metals in Groundwater ......................................38
Chapter 3 Anthropogenic Contributions of Heavy Metals and Metalloids to Surface and
Underground Water .................................................................................................... 43
Anthropogenic Contributions of Heavy Metals and Metalloids to
Surface Water ............................................................................................................. 43
The Growing Threat of Anthropogenic Inputs of Heavy Metals and
Metalloids .............................................................................................................. 43
Contamination of Surface Water from Black Shale and Acid Rock
Drainage ................................................................................................................ 43
Heavy Metal Contamination of Snow ...................................................................44
Contamination of Surface Water from Active and Abandoned Mines ................. 45
Heavy Metals and Metalloids from Other Sources ...............................................52
Sediment as a Repository of Heavy Metals in Freshwater Ecosystems:
Retention and Release ...........................................................................................54
Anthropogenic Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Sediments ................................. 57
Anthropogenic Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Groundwater ............................60
Black Shales ......................................................................................................60
Mining ..............................................................................................................60
Other Sources ................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 4 Public Health Issues Emanating from Heavy Metal Contamination of
Freshwater Ecosystems and Groundwater .................................................................65
Effects of Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contamination of Water on Public
Health .........................................................................................................................65
General Considerations .........................................................................................65
Arsenic...................................................................................................................65
Cadmium ...............................................................................................................68
Chromium ..............................................................................................................69
Copper ................................................................................................................... 71
Lead .......................................................................................................................72
Mercury ................................................................................................................. 74
C ontents vii
Nickel ..................................................................................................................... 75
Zinc ........................................................................................................................ 75
Human Health Risks from Water Contaminated by Multiple Heavy Metals
and Metalloids ............................................................................................................76
Human Health Risks in Black Shale and Acid Sulfate Soil Areas ....................... 76
Human Health Risks in Mining Areas .................................................................. 76
Human Health Risks in Industrial Areas .............................................................. 76
Chapter 5 Effects of Heavy Metals and Metalloids on Freshwater Communities ......................79
Microbial Communities .............................................................................................79
Phytoplankton, Periphyton, and Zooplankton Communities .....................................80
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities ..................................................................82
Benthic Invertebrates as Biomonitors of Heavy Metal Pollution ..........................82
Toxicity Tests Vis-à-Vis Field Data .......................................................................86
Effects on Macroinvertebrate Communities in Mining and Naturally
Metal-Rich Areas ..................................................................................................87
Fish Communities ......................................................................................................88
Effects of Active and Abandoned Mines on Freshwater Communities .....................90
Heavy Metal Industries ..............................................................................................92
Chapter 6 Responses of Freshwater Biota to Heavy Metal and Metalloid Exposure .................93
Acute Toxicity ............................................................................................................93
Cadmium ...............................................................................................................93
Chromium ..............................................................................................................93
Copper ...................................................................................................................94
Iron, Lead, and Manganese ...................................................................................96
Mercury .................................................................................................................96
Nickel ...................................................................................................................100
Silver, Uranium, and Zinc ................................................................................... 101
Mechanism of Heavy Metal Toxicity .................................................................. 102
Chronic (Sublethal) Toxicity ....................................................................................104
Sublethal Effects ......................................................................................................104
Effects of Heavy Metals on Plankton and Periphyton ........................................104
Entry of Heavy Metals into Algal Cells ..............................................................105
Effects of Heavy Metals on Aquatic Plants ......................................................... 106
Effects on Freshwater Invertebrates .................................................................... 106
Antioxidant Responses in Fish to Heavy Metal Exposure ..................................108
Histopathological Effects in Fish ........................................................................ 110
Genotoxic Effects ................................................................................................ 111
Effects of Heavy Metal Load in Sediments ........................................................ 112
Effects of Metal-Contaminated Sediment Ingestion in Aquatic Birds ............... 113
Chapter 7 Accumulation of Heavy Metals by Freshwater Biota. .............................................. 117
Heavy Metal Accumulation by Different Groups of Freshwater Biota .................... 117
Heavy Metal Hyperaccumulation in Plants ......................................................... 117
Accumulation of Heavy Metals by Aquatic Macrophytes .................................. 118
Arsenic Accumulation by Aquatic Macrophytes ................................................120
Invasive Species and Heavy Metal/Metalloid Accumulation ............................. 121
Heavy Metal/Metalloid Accumulation by Algae and Microorganisms .............. 121
viii Contents
Heavy Metal and Metalloid Accumulation in Different Levels of
Consumers ........................................................................................................... 122
Freshwater Invertebrates ...................................................................................... 122
Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Freshwater Food Chains ................................. 129
Chapter 8 Remediation of Heavy Metals by Biota ................................................................... 131
Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal- and Metalloid-Contaminated Water ................ 131
Removal of Arsenic and Other Metalloids by Phytoremediation ....................... 131
Removal of Heavy Metals by Phytoremediation .................................................135
Heavy Metal Removal by Algae .......................................................................... 140
Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Uptake .................................................................. 140
Wetlands in Heavy Metal Remediation ............................................................... 141
Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Constructed
Wetlands .............................................................................................................. 141
Role of Plants in Constructed Wetlands .............................................................. 143
Microbial Bioremediation.................................................................................... 144
Chapter 9 Effects of Climate Change on Heavy Metals and Their Toxicity on
Freshwater Organisms .............................................................................................. 147
Effects of Climate Change on Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Freshwater ........... 147
Qualitative Effects of Climate Change on Freshwater Resources ...................... 147
Heavy Metal Release in High-Altitude Areas ..................................................... 147
Heavy Metal Release in Peatland Wetlands ........................................................148
SECTION II Policy Issues
Chapter 10 Water Policy and Legal Framework Vis-à-Vis Heavy Metal Contamination ..........157
Historical Perspective ............................................................................................... 157
Europe and UK ......................................................................................................... 158
USA .......................................................................................................................... 159
Canada ...................................................................................................................... 160
Australia ................................................................................................................... 161
Chapter 11 Policy and Legal Framework for Water Pollution with Special Reference to
Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Different Parts of the World ................................ 163
Laws on Water Pollution in the USA ....................................................................... 163
Lead in Drinking Water ........................................................................................... 164
Europe ...................................................................................................................... 168
Canada ...................................................................................................................... 171
Australia ................................................................................................................... 172
Brazil ........................................................................................................................ 175
South Africa ............................................................................................................. 178
Eritrea ....................................................................................................................... 178
China ........................................................................................................................ 179
India .......................................................................................................................... 184
C ontents ix
Chapter 12 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Its Implications
in Heavy Metal and Metalloid Contamination of Water .......................................... 189
Introduction to IWRM ............................................................................................. 189
Application and Relevance of IWRM in the Context of Heavy Metal
Contamination .......................................................................................................... 190
SECTION III Ethical Issues
Chapter 13 Ethical Approaches towards Environmental Issues .................................................199
Ethics: A Brief Historical Perspective ..................................................................... 199
Environmental Ethics ...............................................................................................199
Principles ............................................................................................................. 201
Chapter 14 Water Ethics in Indigenous Societies .......................................................................205
Indigenous vs Western Perceptions of Water ...........................................................205
Indigenous Water Ethics in Australia ..................................................................205
Indigenous Water Ethics in Canada ....................................................................207
Indigenous Water Ethics in Other Parts of the World .........................................209
Chapter 15 Ethical Issues in Heavy Metal Contamination of Surface Water and
Groundwater ............................................................................................................. 211
The Outlines of an Ethical Framework for Heavy Metal and Metalloid
Pollution of Water ..................................................................................................... 211
Ethical Measures in Industry .............................................................................. 211
Other Measures ................................................................................................... 213
The Nature of Water Ethics ................................................................................. 213
References ...................................................................................................................................... 215
Index ..............................................................................................................................................247