Handling of Apple

234 Pages·2006·9.1 MB·English

Centre of Excellence AGROPHYSICS
for Applied Physics in Sustainable Agriculture
Handling Apple
of
transport techniques and efficiency
vibration, damage and bruising
texture, firmness and quality
Bohdan Dobrzañski, jr.
Jacek Rabcewicz
Rafa³ Rybczyñski
B. Dobrzañski Institute of Agrophysics Polish Academy of Sciences
Centre of Excellence AGROPHYSICS
for Applied Physics in Sustainable Agriculture
Handling Apple
of
transport techniques and efficiency
vibration, damage and bruising
texture, firmness and quality
Bohdan Dobrzañski, jr.
Jacek Rabcewicz
Rafa³ Rybczyñski
B. Dobrzañski Institute of Agrophysics Polish Academy of Sciences
PUBLISHED BY:
B. DOBRZAŃSKI INSTITUTE OF AGROPHYSICS
OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ACTIVITIES OF WP9 IN THE CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE AGROPHYSICS
CONTRACT NO: QLAM-2001-00428
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE FOR APPLIED PHYSICS IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE WITH THE
ACRONYM AGROPHYSICS IS FOUNDED UNDER 5th EU FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH,
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION ACTIVITIES
GENERAL SUPERVISOR OF THE CENTRE:
PROF. DR. RYSZARD T. WALCZAK, MEMBER OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PROJECT COORDINATOR:
DR. ENG. ANDRZEJ STĘPNIEWSKI
WP9: PHYSICAL METHODS OF EVALUATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE QUALITY
LEADER OF WP9: PROF. DR. ENG. BOHDAN DOBRZAŃSKI, JR.

REVIEWED BY
PROF. DR. ENG. JÓZEF KOWALCZUK

TRANSLATED (EXCEPT CHAPTERS: 1, 2, 6-9) BY
M.SC. TOMASZ BYLICA

THE RESULTS OF STUDY PRESENTED IN THE MONOGRAPH ARE SUPPORTED BY:

THE STATE COMMITTEE FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
UNDER GRANT NO. 5 P06F 012 19 AND ORDERED PROJECT NO. PBZ-51-02

RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF POMOLOGY AND FLORICULTURE

B. DOBRZAŃSKI INSTITUTE OF AGROPHYSICS
OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

© BOHDAN DOBRZAŃSKI INSTITUTE OF AGROPHYSICS OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Copyright by
LUBLIN 2006

ISBN 83-89969-55-6

1ST EDITION - ISBN 83-89969-55-6 (IN ENGLISH) 180 COPIES, PRINTED SHEETS (16.8)
PRINTED ON ACID-FREE PAPER IN POLAND BY: ALF-GRAF, UL. KOŚCIUSZKI 4, 20-006 LUBLIN
COVER DESIGN, PHOTOSET BY: BOHDAN DOBRZAŃSKI, III
MONOCHROME PAGES PHOTOSET BY: DR WANDA WOŹNIAK
PHOTOSET DEVELOPING IN LUBLIN, POLAND BY: DZIENNIK WSCHODNI
CONTENTS

PREFACE 9
INTRODUCTION 13
CHAPTER 1
APPLE 17
1.1. BOTANICAL ORIGINS 17
1.2. SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION 18
1.3. APPLE CULTIVARS 18
1.4. QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS 19
1.4.1. SKIN COLOR 19
1.4.2. BLEMISH 19
1.4.3. TEXTURE 20
1.4.4. FLAVOR 20
1.5. HEALTH BENEFITS 20
1.6. CULTURAL ASPECTS 20
1.7. PRODUCTION AND USES 22
1.7.1. JUICE PRODUCTION 29
1.7.1.1. CHINA APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 30

1.7.1.2. U.S. APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 30

1.7.1.3. POLAND APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 31
1.7.1.4. GERMANY APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 31
1.7.1.5. ARGENTINA APPLE JUICE PRODUCTION 32
1.7.2. WORLD TRADE IN APPLE JUICE 32
CHAPTER 2
HARVESTING AND HANDLING APPLES 33
2.1. HARVESTING, PACKAGING AND TRANSPORTATION 33
2.2. HARVEST MATURITY 34
2.2.1. APPLE MATURITY INDICES 35
2.2.2. FRUIT FIRMNESS 36
2.2.3. DAYS AFTER FULL BLOOM (DAFB) 36
2.2.4. PERCENT PERCENT SOLUBLE SOLIDS (OR SUGAR LEVELS) 38
2.2.5. ACIDITY 39
2.2.6. STARCH LEVELS 39
2.2.7. SEED COLOR AND FRUIT COLOR 40
2.2.8. FRUIT TEXTURE 41
2.3. PREPARING THE ORCHARD FOR HARVEST 41
2.3.1. BASKET VERSUS BAG 41
2.3.2. LADDERS 42
2.3.3. TRAINING PICKERS 42
4 HANDLING OF APPLE
2.3.3.1. PROPER DRESS 43
2.3.3.2. HOW TO PICK 43
2.3.3.4. SORTING IN THE ORCHARD 44
2.3.3.5. PICKING CREW 44
2.3.3.6. PIECEWORK 45
2.4. MECHANICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS 45
2.4.1. DISEASES 46
2.5. BRUISING 46
2.5.1. BRUISING IN FRUIT 46
2.5.2. INSPECTION OF FRUIT FOR BRUISING 50
2.5.3. BRUISING ON THE TREE 50
2.6. FROZEN APPLES 51
2.7. PRUNING TO FACILITATE HARVEST 51
2.8. STORAGE 52
2.8.1. GRADE SIZE AND PACKING 52
2.8.2. COOLING CONDITIONS 53
2.8.3. OPTIMUM STORAGE CONDITIONS 54
2.8.4. CA AND APPLE VARIETIES 59
CHAPTER 3
TRANSPORT VEHICLES IN HANDLING APPLES 61
3.1. CHARACTERIZATION OF TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND VEHICLES USED IN
ORCHARD 61
3.1.1. TRACTOR 61
3.1.2. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF TRAILERS AND FORKLIFTS 61
3.1.3. FRONT AND REAR FORKLIFTS 62
3.1.4. SELF-UNLOADING TRAILER FOR ORCHARD USE 62
3.1.5. PYRO-S SELF LOADING/UNLOADING TRAILER 63
3.1.6. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSAL TRAILERS 65
3.2. TRANSPORT VEHICLES USED IN STORAGE 66
CHAPTER 4
EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT 67
4.1. EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND VEHICLES USED IN ORCHARD 67
4.2. THE METHODS OF EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION IN TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES 70
4.2.1. DISTANCES AND ROAD SURFACES 72
4.2.2. PARAMETERS FOR EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION 72
4.2.3. EFFECTIVE TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY 74
4.2.4. STANDARDIZED EFFICIENCY 74
4.3. ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGIES 75
4.3.1. TIME OF OPERATIONS AND REAL RANGE OF TRANSPORT 76
4.3.2. TIME OF LOADING AND UNLOADING 78
4.3.3. VEHICLE DRIVING SPEED 79
4.3.4. EFFECT OF DISTANCE RANGE ON THE EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES 80
4.3.5. EFFICIENCY LEVEL OF VEHICLES OVER DIFFERENT TRANSPORT DISTANCES 81
4.3.5. EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES ON THE ROAD 82
4.3.6. STANDARDIZED EFFICIENCY OF TRANSPORT VEHICLES ON THE ROAD 83
CONTENTS 5
4.4. COSTS AND FUEL CONSUMPTION 84
4.4.1. FUEL CONSUMPTION 84
4.4.2. INSTANT FUEL CONSUMPTION 84
4.4.3. EFFECT OF TRANSPORT DISTANCE ON FUEL CONSUMPTION 85
4.4.4. COSTS OF APPLE TRANSPORT 87
CHAPTER 5
APPLE DAMAGE AND BRUISING IN TRANSPORT 91
5.1. FACTORS AFFECTING DAMAGES IN TRANSPORT OF APPLES 91
5.2. PROCEDURES OF STUDY THE EFFECT OF TRANSPORT ON APPLE DAMAGE 100
5.2.1. FIRMNESS, FRUIT SIZE AND WEIGH 100
5.2.2. VEHICLES SPEED AND TRANSPORT RANGE 101
5.2.3. VIBRATIONS 102
5.2.3.1. BIN VIBRATIONS MONITORING 103
5.2.3.2. FRUIT ACCELERATIONS IN BIN AS A CONSEQUENCE OF VEHICLE VIBRATIONS 105
5.2.4. DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION 108
5.2.5. EFFECT OF VEHICLE TYPE AND DRIVING SPEED ON FRUIT DAMAGE 109
5.2.6. EFFECT OF FRUIT POSITION IN THE BIN ON THE EXTENT OF DAMAGE 111
CHAPTER 6
FRUIT QUALITY AND TEXTURE 119
6.1. PHYSICAL METHODS FOR FRUIT QUALITY EVALUATION 120
6.2. NON-DESTRUCTIVE MEASUREMENTS FOR ON-LINE SORTING 121
6.2.1. LASER AIR-PUFF TEST 122
6.2.2. IMPACT OR BOUNCE TEST 122
6.2.3. SONIC AND ULTRASONIC METHODS 123
6.2.4. SONIC OR ACOUSTIC TESTS 123
6.2.5. ULTRASONIC TESTS 124
6.2.6. LIGHT SCATTER IMAGING 124
6.3. PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF TEXTURE 125
6.3.1. PARENCHYMA CELLS 125
6.3.2. CELL WALL 126
6.3.3. CELL TURGOR 127
6.3.4. CELL-TO-CELL DE-BONDING VERSUS CELL RUPTURE 128
6.3.5. OTHER ELEMENTS OF TISSUE STRENGTH 129
6.4. SENSORY EVALUATION OF TEXTURE 129
6.5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES RELATED TO FRUIT FIRMNESS 130
6.5.1. INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENT OF TEXTURE AND FIRMNESS 131
6.5.2. ELASTIC AND VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOR 132
6.5.3. MAGNESS-TAYLOR FRUIT FIRMNESS TESTER AND RELATED PENETROMETERS 133
6.5.4. HIGH RATE DEFORMATION - RESPONCE OF PHYSICAL QUANTITY ON IMPACT 133
6.5.5. FORCE/DEFORMATION CURVES AND RELATIONSHIP 134
6.5.5.1. PUNCTURE TESTS 136
6.5.5.2. SHEAR TESTS 137
6.5.5.3. COMPRESSION 138
6.5.5.4. TENSION TEST 139
6.5.5.5. TORSION TEST 139
6 HANDLING OF APPLE
6.5.5.6. TWIST TEST 139
6.5.5.7. BENDING TEST 139
6.6. JUICINESS 140
6.7. DENSITY 140
CHAPTER 7
QUALITY PROPERTIES OF APPLE 141
7.1. SIZE, SHAPE AND WEIGHT 142
7.2. MECHANICAL PARAMETERS OF APPLE 144
7.2.1. TENSION TEST 146
7.2.2. COMPRESSION TEST 147
7.2.3. PENETRATION TEST 148
7.2.4. BENDING TEST 149
7.3. APPLE FIRMNESS 151
7.3.1. WATER POTENTIAL OF TISSUE AND ELASTICITY OF APPLE FLESH 153
7.4. BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY OF FIRMNESS MEASURING 155
7.4.1. DEFORMATION OF APPLE UNDER PLUNGER AND SUPPORT 156
7.4.1.1. FRUIT DEFORMATION UNDER SUPPORT 156
7.4.1.2. FRUIT DEFORMATION UNDER PLUNGER 157
7.4.1.3. WHY TRIPLE SUPPORT AND 6MM PLUNGER ARE USED FOR FIRMNESS METER 158
7.4.1.4. THE ELASTICITY METER 158
7.5. FRICTION BETWEEN APPLE AND FLAT SURFACES 161
7.5.1 STATIC AND DYNAMIC COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION 162
7.6. COLOR OF APPLE 165
7.6.1. PHYSICAL BASES OF HUMAN PERCEPTION OF COLOR 166
7.6.2. COLOR CHANGE OF APPLE AS A RESULT OF STORAGE, SHELF-LIFE AND BRUISING 169
7.7. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF APPLE 177
7.8. WHAT PROPERTY IS MOST AFFECTING FACTOR ON QUALITY OF APPLE 177
CHAPTER 8
TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS FOR APPLES 181
8.1. PRODUCT INFORMATION 181
8.1.1. PRODUCT NAME 181
8.1.2. TRADE PRODUCT DESCRIPTION 181
8.1.3. QUALITY / DURATION OF STORAGE 182
8.1.4. INTENDED USE 182
8.1.5. COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN 183
8.2. PACKAGING 183
8.2.1. TRANSPORT 183
8.2.1.1. SYMBOLS 183
8.2.1.2. MEANS OF TRANSPORT 184
8.2.1.3. CONTAINER TRANSPORT 184
8.2.1.4. CARGO HANDLING 184
8.2.1.5. STOWAGE FACTOR 184
8.2.1.6. STOWAGE SPACE REQUIREMENTS 184
8.2.1.7. SEGREGATION 184
8.2.1.8. CARGO SECURING 185
CONTENTS 7
8.3. RISK FACTORS AND LOSS PREVENTION 185
8.3.1. RF TEMPERATURE 185
8.3.2. RF HUMIDITY/MOISTURE 186
8.3.3. RF VENTILATION 187
8.3.4. RF BIOTIC ACTIVITY 187
8.3.5. RF GASES 187
8.3.6. RF SELF-HEATING / SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 188
8.3.7. RF ODOR 188
8.3.8. RF CONTAMINATION 188
8.3.9. RF MECHANICAL INFLUENCES 189
8.3.10. RF TOXICITY / HAZARDS TO HEALTH 189
8.3.11. RF SHRINKAGE/SHORTAGE 189
8.3.12. RF INSECT INFESTATION / DISEASES 189
CHAPTER 9
EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS FOR APPLES 191
COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) NO 85/2004 OF 15 JANUARY 2004 191
ANNEX 194
I. DEFINITION OF PRODUCE 194
II. PROVISIONS CONCERNING QUALITY 194
III. PROVISIONS CONCERNING SIZING 196
IV. PROVISIONS CONCERNING TOLERANCE 197
V. PROVISIONS CONCERNING PRESENTATION 198
VI. PROVISIONS CONCERNING MARKING 198
APPENDIX 200
REFERENCES 209
ABSTRACT 234
PREFACE

Based on experience and results of scientific cooperation between B.
Dobrzański Institute of Agrophysics of Polish Academy of Sciences in Lublin and
Research Institute of Pomology and Floriculture, which is located in Skierniewice,
the authors prepared the monograph on Handling of Apple, transport techniques
and efficiency, vibration, damage and bruising, texture, firmness and quality. This
is a book following the monograph “Sweet Corn, Harvest and Technology,
Physical Properties and Quality” previously printed in 2005 in the frame of activity
of Work Package 9 (WP9). WP9 - Physical Methods of Evaluation of Fruit and
Vegetable Quality is leaded by prof. dr. eng. Bohdan Dobrzański, jr., who is also a
co-author of this work. The authors are grateful to the 5th EU Framework for
Research, Technological Development and Demonstration Activities, which
founded the Centre of Excellence (CE) for Applied Physics in Sustainable
Agriculture with the acronym Agrophysics and especially to dr. eng. Andrzej
Stępniewski – a coordinator of CE, who prepared this project excellent, being a
person responsible for positive reviewer’s opinion and the acceptance of the
Commission of EU. We also owe thanks and appreciation to Director of the Centre -
prof. dr. Ryszard T. Walczak, a member of Polish Academy of Sciences, who made
the opportunity of editing several monographs, including presented herein work.
This is a book about apple. Apple is a tree and its pomaceous fruit, of species
Malus domestica Borkh. in the rose family Rosaceae, is one of the most widely
cultivated tree fruits. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples.
Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. 48 million
tons of apples were grown worldwide in 2001, while in following years world total
production decreased to 42 million tons of apples in 2005. China produced almost half
of this total. The United States is the second leading producer. Poland is also a leading
producer reaching more than 2.4 million tons of apples.
In chapter 1, the authors describes botanical origin of apple and quality
characteristics, health benefits, production and uses, beginnings of apple cultivation
and the World’s leading producers and exporters of fresh and processed apples.
The overview covers market trends and development, the market in majors
producers as China, U.S., Poland, Germany, France, and Argentina. Production,
supply and demand consumption and trade, as well as, directions of use and
nutritional value of apple are also presented. Harvesting and handling apples fulfil
chapter 2. In detail is described: harvesting, packaging and transportation, harvest
10 HANDLING OF APPLE
maturity, apple maturity indices, preparing the orchard for harvest, mechanical and
physiological disorders, bruising, storage (optimum storage conditions, and apple
varieties recommended for CA storage). In chapter 3, readers can find
characterization of transport techniques and vehicles used in orchard and storage.
Efficiency of the transport techniques and vehicles used in orchard, the
methods of efficiency estimation in transport techniques, economic evaluation of
transport technologies, costs and fuel consumption are submitted in chapter 4. In
chapter 5 are described factors affecting damages in transport of apples, procedures
of study effect of transport on apple damage, vibrations, fruit accelerations in bin
as a consequence of vehicle vibrations, effect of vehicle type and driving speed on
fruit damage, fruit position in the bin on the extent of damage and damage
classification of apple. Physical methods for fruit quality evaluation, non-
destructive measurements, physiological basis of texture, sensory evaluation of
texture, mechanical properties related to fruit firmness, instrumental measurement
of texture and firmness, are presented in chapter 6 "Fruit quality and texture”.
Quality properties of apple are presented in chapters 7. The results of the
measurements of size, shape and weight, mechanical parameters of apple, apple
firmness (background for the study of firmness), friction between apple and flat
surfaces are included in subchapters 7.1. to 7.5. In following subchapter 7.6. - color
of apple and in subchapter 7.7., a nutritional value of apple is described. Transport
requirements for apples (product information, packaging, risk factors and loss
prevention) are presented in chapter 8. In chapter 9 are printed European
Communities Regulations and Standards for Apples covering Commission
Regulation (EC) No 85/2004 of 15 January 2004. In this regulation, Annex includes
definition of produce, quality, sizing, tolerance, presentation, marking, while
Appendix presents colouring, russeting, size criteria and the apple varieties, listed in
table, which are classified according to their colouring, russeting and size criteria.
The quality of fruits for direct consumption depends not only on correct
technology of their production. In spite of the high quality of apples grown in
Polish orchards, fruits offered to the consumer, due to incorrect handling,
sometimes lack in their appearance (Pieniążek, 1981). Proper utilization of fruits
after harvest is – according to that author – the most important problem of Polish
fruit farming. The first post-harvest operation that has an effect on the quality of
fruits is their transport from the orchard to the storage facility. Rapid loading on
refrigeration chambers and refrigeration of fruits (within 3-4 days) is one of the
fundamental conditions of correct storage of apples in controlled atmosphere
(Lange, Ostrowski, 1992). However, to ensure smooth loading of refrigeration
chambers one has to deliver the harvested fruits to the storage facility rapidly and
efficiently. This requires the use of efficient methods and means of transportation.
Texture measurement has become widely accepted by horticultural industries as
a critical indicator of non-visual aspects of quality. The ability to measure texture has