Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations

813 Pages·2009·19.223 MB·English

by  Frank R Spellman

Second Edition
Handbook of
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Second Edition
Handbook of
Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant
Operations
Frank R. Spellman
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Spellman, Frank R.
Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations / Frank R. Spellman. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
“A CRC title.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-7530-4 (alk. paper)
1. Water treatment plants--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sewage disposal plants--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3.
Water--Purification--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Sewage--Purification--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
TD434.S64 2008
628.1’62--dc22 2008018725
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents
Preface...........................................................................................................................................................................xxxv
To the Reader..............................................................................................................................................................xxxvii
Author ..........................................................................................................................................................................xxxix
Part I. Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview............................................................................................1
Chapter 1. Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations...........................................................3
1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................3
1.2 The Paradigm Shift.................................................................................................................................................3
1.2.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done.........................................................................4
1.3 Multiple-Barrier Concept........................................................................................................................................5
1.3.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations.................................................................................6
1.4 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations........................................................................8
1.4.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations...................................................................8
1.4.2 Maintaining Infrastructure..........................................................................................................................9
1.4.3 Privatization and/or Reengineering..........................................................................................................11
1.4.4 Benchmarking...........................................................................................................................................13
1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process...................................................................................................14
1.5 Water: The New Oil?............................................................................................................................................16
1.5.1 Characteristics of Water...........................................................................................................................16
1.5.2 Water Use.................................................................................................................................................17
1.6 Technical Management vs. Professional Management.........................................................................................19
Chapter Review Questions................................................................................................................................................23
Thought-Provoking Question............................................................................................................................................23
References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 2. Water/Wastewater Operators....................................................................................................................25
2.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................25
2.2 Setting the Record Straight...................................................................................................................................26
2.3 The Computer-Literate Jack or Jill.......................................................................................................................26
2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders..........................................................................................................27
2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions..........................................................................................28
2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure....................................................................................................................29
Chapter Review Questions................................................................................................................................................30
References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................................30
Chapter 3. Upgrading Security.....................................................................................................................................31
3.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................31
3.2 Consequences of 9/11...........................................................................................................................................31
3.3 Security Hardware/Devices...................................................................................................................................34
3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices.....................................................................................34
3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures.......................................................................34
3.3.1.2 Alarms.....................................................................................................................................34
3.3.1.3 Backflow-Prevention Devices.................................................................................................36
3.3.1.4 Barriers....................................................................................................................................36
3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems....................................................................................................39
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
vi Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Second Edition
3.3.1.6 Card Identification and Access and Tracking Systems..........................................................40
3.3.1.7 Fences......................................................................................................................................40
3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection.........................................................................................41
3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks.................................................................................................................42
3.3.1.10 Hatch Security.........................................................................................................................42
3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors.....................................................................................................................43
3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control............................................................................................................43
3.3.1.13 Locks.......................................................................................................................................43
3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors.....................................................................................................44
3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks........................................................................................................................44
3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages............................44
3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers.....................................................................................................................45
3.3.1.18 Side-Hinged Door Security.....................................................................................................46
3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices...........................................................................................................47
3.3.1.20 Vent Security...........................................................................................................................47
3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring..............................................................................................48
3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices.......................................................................................................................48
3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination.................49
3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System.................................................................49
3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensors: Adapted BOD Analyzer...........................................................................50
3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensors: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer...............................................................50
3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System...............................................................50
3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer......................................................................51
3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs............................................................................52
3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment..............................................................................................52
3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets..............................................53
3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters.....................................................................................54
3.3.3 Communication and Integration...............................................................................................................54
3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers.............................................................................................................54
3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios.....................................................................................................................55
3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications..............................................................................................55
3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices.........................................................................................................................55
3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software...............................................................................56
3.3.4.2 Firewalls..................................................................................................................................56
3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software............................................................................56
3.4 SCADA..................................................................................................................................................................57
3.4.1 What Is SCADA?.....................................................................................................................................58
3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems..............................................................................59
3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities............................................................................................................................59
3.4.4 The Increasing Risk.................................................................................................................................60
3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities..........................................................................60
3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems...........................................................................................................62
3.4.7 Securing Control Systems........................................................................................................................62
3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security.........................................................................................................62
The Bottom Line on Security...........................................................................................................................................66
Chapter Review Question.................................................................................................................................................66
References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................................67
Chapter 4. Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology......................................................................69
4.1 Setting the Stage...................................................................................................................................................69
4.2 Treatment Process Models....................................................................................................................................69
4.3 Key Terms Used in Water and Wastewater Operations........................................................................................69
Chapter Review Question.................................................................................................................................................77
References and Suggested Reading..................................................................................................................................78
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents vii
Part II. Water/Wastewater Operations: Math and Technical Aspects......................................................................79
Chapter 5. Water/Wastewater Math Operations.........................................................................................................81
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................81
5.2 Calculation Steps...................................................................................................................................................81
5.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols....................................................................................................................81
5.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations............................................................................................................81
5.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median..........................................................................81
5.4.2 Units and Conversions.............................................................................................................................84
5.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions........................................................................................................84
5.4.2.2 Milligrams Per Liter (Parts Per Million)................................................................................85
5.4.3 Area and Volume......................................................................................................................................86
5.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head........................................................................................................................86
5.4.5 Flow..........................................................................................................................................................88
5.4.6 Flow Calculations.....................................................................................................................................89
5.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates.......................................................................................................89
5.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank.......................................................89
5.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank.........................................................................................90
5.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline..................................................................................................90
5.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations..............................................................................................................90
5.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations............................................................................................91
5.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations................................................................................................91
5.4.7 Detention Time.........................................................................................................................................91
5.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time........................................................................................................................92
5.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days.........................................................................................92
5.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours.......................................................................................92
5.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes....................................................................................93
5.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations................................................................................................................93
5.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart......................................................................................................93
5.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage......................................................................................................................94
5.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage...............................................................................................................94
5.4.10 Percent Removal.......................................................................................................................................95
5.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor........................................................................................96
5.4.12 Specific Gravity........................................................................................................................................96
5.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge..........................................................................................96
5.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation...............................................................................................96
5.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate.............................................................................................................96
5.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength.................................................................................................97
5.4.15 Filtration...................................................................................................................................................97
5.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration...........................................................................................97
5.4.15.2 Filter Backwash.......................................................................................................................97
5.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations..................................................................................................98
5.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity................................................................................................................98
5.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations......................................................................................................99
5.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations......................................................................99
5.4.17 Complex Conversions.............................................................................................................................100
5.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity.....................................................................................................101
5.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration.....................................................................................................101
5.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate.........................................................................................102
5.5 Applied Math Operations....................................................................................................................................102
5.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance.................................................................................102
5.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks...........................................................................................................102
5.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal......................................................................................................102
5.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance................................................................................................................103
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
viii Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Second Edition
5.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency................................................................................................104
5.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency...................................................................................104
5.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge.......................................................................104
5.6 Water Math Concepts..........................................................................................................................................104
5.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations...............................................................................................104
5.6.2 Water Source Calculations.....................................................................................................................105
5.6.2.1 Well Drawdown.....................................................................................................................105
5.6.2.2 Well Yield..............................................................................................................................105
5.6.2.3 Specific Yield........................................................................................................................105
5.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection......................................................................................................106
5.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pumps....................................................................................................106
5.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pump Calculations.....................................................................................106
5.6.3 Water Storage Calculations....................................................................................................................107
5.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing...........................................................................................................................107
5.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation................................................................................................................108
5.6.5.1 Coagulation...........................................................................................................................108
5.6.5.2 Flocculation...........................................................................................................................108
5.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations..........................................................................108
5.6.6 Determining Chemical Usage................................................................................................................113
5.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations....................................................................................................................114
5.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume......................................................................................................114
5.6.7.2 Detention Time......................................................................................................................114
5.6.7.3 Surface Overflow Rate..........................................................................................................115
5.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity..............................................................................................................115
5.6.7.5 Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate)............................................................................116
5.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids......................................................................................................116
5.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L).......................................................................................117
5.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day)......................................................................................118
5.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min)......................................................................................118
5.6.8 Filtration Calculations............................................................................................................................119
5.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm).........................................................................................119
5.6.8.2 Filtration Rate.......................................................................................................................120
5.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume........................................................................................................121
5.6.8.4 Backwash Rate......................................................................................................................122
5.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate..............................................................................................................122
5.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal).........................................................................123
5.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft).....................................................................123
5.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm)...........................................................................................123
5.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwash..........................................................................124
5.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume.....................................................................................................124
5.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion............................................................................................................125
5.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations............................................................................................................125
5.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection............................................................................................................125
5.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate)..........................................................................125
5.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual.............................................................126
5.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate......................................................................................128
5.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate......................................................................129
5.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions...........................................................................130
5.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite........................................................130
5.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations....................................................................................................................130
5.6.11 Fluoridation............................................................................................................................................131
5.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation................................................................................................................131
5.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds.............................................................................................................131
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents ix
5.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels.......................................................................................................132
5.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations........................................................................................133
5.6.12 Water Softening......................................................................................................................................137
5.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO ............................................................................137
3
5.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO .......................................................................137
3
5.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness...................................................................................................138
5.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness............................................................138
5.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination......................................................................................................139
5.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness...........................................................140
5.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation....................................................................................................140
5.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates.........................................................................................................141
5.6.12.9 Ion Exchange Capacity.........................................................................................................141
5.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity....................................................................................................142
5.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required)...............................................143
5.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration...........................................................................143
5.7 Wastewater Math Concepts.................................................................................................................................144
5.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations.......................................................................................................144
5.7.1.1 Screening...............................................................................................................................144
5.7.1.2 Grit Removal.........................................................................................................................145
5.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations.............................................................................................................147
5.7.2.1 Process Control Calculations................................................................................................147
5.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate)...............................147
5.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)............................................................................148
5.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day)...................................................................148
5.7.3 Trickling Filters......................................................................................................................................148
5.7.3.1 Trickling Filter Process Calculations...................................................................................149
5.7.3.2 Hydraulic Loading................................................................................................................149
5.7.3.3 Organic Loading Rate...........................................................................................................149
5.7.3.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed.................................................................................150
5.7.3.5 Recirculation Flow................................................................................................................150
5.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactors..............................................................................................................150
5.7.4.1 RBC Process Control Calculations.......................................................................................151
5.7.4.2 Hydraulic Loading Rate........................................................................................................151
5.7.4.3 Soluble BOD.........................................................................................................................151
5.7.4.4 Organic Loading Rate...........................................................................................................152
5.7.4.5 Total Media Area..................................................................................................................152
5.7.5 Activated Biosolids................................................................................................................................152
5.7.5.1 Activated Biosolids Process Control Calculations...............................................................153
5.7.5.2 Moving Averages..................................................................................................................153
5.7.5.3 BOD or COD Loading..........................................................................................................153
5.7.5.4 Solids Inventory....................................................................................................................153
5.7.5.5 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio..............................................................................................154
5.7.5.6 Gould Biosolids Age.............................................................................................................155
5.7.5.7 Mean Cell Residence Time...................................................................................................155
5.7.5.8 Estimating Return Rates from SSV ...................................................................................156
60
5.7.5.9 Sludge Volume Index............................................................................................................157
5.7.5.10 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids...................................................................157
5.7.5.11 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance.............................................................................158
5.7.5.12 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time..........................................................................................158
5.7.6 Treatment Ponds.....................................................................................................................................159
5.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters..................................................................................................159
5.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control Calculations.....................................................................159
5.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days)........................................................................................159
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
x Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Second Edition
5.7.6.4 BOD Loading........................................................................................................................160
5.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate...........................................................................................................160
5.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency.....................................................................................................160
5.7.6.7 Population Loading...............................................................................................................160
5.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading Rate (In./Day) (Hydraulic Overflow Rate)...........................................160
5.7.7 Chemical Dosing....................................................................................................................................160
5.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate..............................................................................................................161
5.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual................................................................................162
5.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage.............................................................................................................162
5.7.8 Chemical Solutions................................................................................................................................163
5.7.8.1 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (gpd)..............................................................................164
5.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting.....................................................................164
5.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min).......................................................................165
5.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration...................................................................................................165
5.7.8.5 Average Use Calculations.....................................................................................................166
5.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping Calculations..................................167
5.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production Calculations......................................................167
5.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations................................................................167
5.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations............................................................167
5.7.8.10 Percent Solids........................................................................................................................168
5.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping................................................................................................................168
5.7.8.12 Estimating Daily Biosolids Production................................................................................168
5.7.8.13 Biosolids Production in Pounds per Million Gallons..........................................................168
5.7.8.14 Biosolids Production in Wet Tons/Year................................................................................169
5.7.8.15 Biosolids Pumping Time.......................................................................................................169
5.7.8.16 Biosolids Pumped per Day in Gallons.................................................................................169
5.7.8.17 Biosolids Pumped per Day in Pounds..................................................................................169
5.7.8.18 Solids Pumped per Day in Pounds.......................................................................................169
5.7.8.19 Volatile Matter Pumped per Day in Pounds.........................................................................169
5.7.8.20 Biosolids Thickening............................................................................................................170
5.7.8.21 Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener Calculations.....................................................170
5.7.8.22 Centrifuge Thickening Calculations.....................................................................................171
5.7.8.23 Biosolids Digestion or Stabilization.....................................................................................172
5.7.8.24 Aerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations.................................................................172
5.7.8.25 Volatile Solids Loading (lb/ft3/day)......................................................................................172
5.7.8.26 Digestion Time, Days...........................................................................................................172
5.7.8.27 pH Adjustment......................................................................................................................172
5.7.8.28 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations.............................................................173
5.7.8.29 Required Seed Volume in Gallons........................................................................................173
5.7.8.30 Volatile Acids/Alkalinity Ratio.............................................................................................173
5.7.8.31 Biosolids Retention Time.....................................................................................................173
5.7.8.32 Estimated Gas Production in Cubic Feet/Day......................................................................173
5.7.8.33 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction........................................................................................174
5.7.8.34 Percent Moisture Reduction in Digested Biosolids.............................................................174
5.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering.............................................................................................................................174
5.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration.................................................................................................................174
5.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press Calculations.....................................................................................174
5.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press Calculations...............................................................................................175
5.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering Calculations...................................................................177
5.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds.................................................................................................................178
5.7.10 Biosolids Disposal..................................................................................................................................179
5.7.10.1 Land Application Calculations.............................................................................................179
5.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost............................................................................................................181
5.7.10.3 Composting Calculations......................................................................................................181
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents xi
5.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations........................................................................................................182
5.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation..........................................................................................................................182
5.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time...................................................................................................................182
5.8.3 Composite Sampling..............................................................................................................................183
5.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Calculations..........................................................................................184
5.8.4.1 BOD Unseeded....................................................................................................................184
5
5.8.4.2 BOD Seeded........................................................................................................................184
5
5.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average...............................................................................................184
5.8.5 Moles and Molarity................................................................................................................................184
5.8.5.1 Moles.....................................................................................................................................185
5.8.5.2 Normality..............................................................................................................................185
5.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids).........................................................................................................186
5.8.7 Settleable Solids.....................................................................................................................................186
5.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids.....................................................................187
5.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids..............................................................187
5.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index..........................................................................188
Chapter Review Questions..............................................................................................................................................189
General Wastewater Treatment Problems...........................................................................................................189
General Water Treatment Problems....................................................................................................................196
References and Suggested Reading................................................................................................................................197
Chapter 6. Blueprint Reading.....................................................................................................................................199
6.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language..................................................................................................................199
6.1.1 Blueprint Standards................................................................................................................................200
6.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations...........................................................................................201
6.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets...................................................................................201
6.1.2 Finding Information...............................................................................................................................201
6.1.2.1 Detail Drawings....................................................................................................................201
6.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings..............................................................................................................201
6.1.2.3 Title Block.............................................................................................................................201
6.1.2.4 Drawing Notes......................................................................................................................204
6.2 Units of Measurement.........................................................................................................................................207
6.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions...........................................................................................................207
6.3 Alphabet of Lines................................................................................................................................................208
6.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines?...............................................................................................................208
6.3.2 Visible Lines...........................................................................................................................................208
6.3.3 Hidden Lines..........................................................................................................................................209
6.3.4 Section Lines..........................................................................................................................................209
6.3.5 Center Lines...........................................................................................................................................210
6.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines............................................................................................................210
6.3.7 Leaders...................................................................................................................................................210
6.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines...................................................................................................210
6.3.9 Break Lines............................................................................................................................................210
6.3.10 Phantom Lines........................................................................................................................................211
6.3.11 Line Gauge.............................................................................................................................................211
6.3.12 Views......................................................................................................................................................211
6.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections......................................................................................................212
6.3.12.2 One-View Drawings..............................................................................................................214
6.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings.............................................................................................................214
6.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings...........................................................................................................214
6.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views.....................................................................................................................216
6.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes...............................................................................................................................217
6.4.1 Dimensioning.........................................................................................................................................217
6.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions...............................................................................................................218
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC