Table Of ContentThe Handbooks of Aging
Consisting of Three Volumes
Critical comprehensive reviews of
research knowledge, theories, concepts, and issues
Editor-in-Chief
James E. Birren
Handbook of the Biology of Aging
Edited by Edward L. Schneider and John W. Rowe
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging
Edited by James E. Birren and K. Warner Sehaie
Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences
Edited by Robert H. Binstock and Linda K. George
Handbook of
The Psychology of Aging
Third Edition
Editors
James E. Birren and K. Warner Schaie
Associate Editors
Margaret Gatz, Timothy A. Salthouse,
and Carmi Schooler
Editorial Coordinator
Donna E. Deutchman
Academic Press, Inc.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers
San Diego New York Berkeley Boston London Sydney Tokyo Toronto
Copyright © 1990 by Academic Press, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any in-
formation storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
Academic Press, Inc.
San Diego, California 92101
United Kingdom Edition published by
Academic Press Limited
24-28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of the psychology of aging / edited by James E. Birren,
K. Warner Schaie. -- 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographies and indexes.
ISBN 0-12-101280-8 (alk. paper)
1. Aging-Psychological aspects.
I. Birren, James E. II. Schaie, K. Warner (Klaus Warner], Date
[DNLM: 1. Aged-psychology. 2. Aging. WT150 H236]
BF724.55.A35H36 1990
155.67-dc20
DNLM/DC
for Library of Congress 89-15061
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
90 91 92 93 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contributors
Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin.
Edward Anderson (21), Department of Gene D. Cohen (359), National Institute
Human Development and Family Stud- on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
ies, Texas Tech University, Lubbock,
Texas 79409 Roger A. Dixon (258), Department of Psy-
chology, University of Victoria, Vic-
Toni C. Antonucci (103), Institute for So-
toria, British Columbia, Canada V8W
cial Research, University of Michigan,
2Y2
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
Robert E. Dustman (135), Veterans Ad-
Vern L. Bengtson (404), Andrus Gerontolo-
ministration Medical Center, Neuro-
gy Center, University of Southern Cal-
psychology, Salt Lake City, Utah 84148
ifornia, University Park, Los Angeles,
California 90089
Jeffrey W. Elias [79), Department of Psy-
Betty A. Birren (3), California Council on chology, Texas Tech University, Lub-
Gerontology and Geriatrics, Pacific bock, Texas 79409
Palisades, California 90272
Merrill F. Elias (79), Department of Psy-
James E. Birren (3, 45, 222), Borun Center chology, University of Maine, Orono,
for Gerontological Research, UCLA Maine 04469
School of Medicine, Los Angeles, Cal-
ifornia 90024 Penelope K. Elias [79), Beech Hill Enter-
prises, Inc., Mount Desert, Maine
Mindy J. Blum (404), Department of Psy-
04660
chology, University of Southern Califor-
nia, Los Angeles, California 90089 Rita Emmerson (135), Veterans Admin-
istration Medical Center, Neuropsy-
Elizabeth A. Bosman (446), Psychology
chology, Salt Lake City, Utah 84148
Department, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 James L. Fozard (150), National Institute
on Aging, Gerontology Research Cen-
John Cerella (201), Veterans Administra-
ter, Longitudinal Studies Branch, Bal-
tion Medical Center, Research Service,
timore, Maryland 21224
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
Neil Charness (446), Psychology Depart- Margaret Gatz (404), Department of Psy-
ment, University of Waterloo, Water- chology, University of Southern Califor-
loo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1 nia, Los Angeles, California 90089
xi
xii Contributors
Rose C. Gibson (103), Institute for Social Joan M. McDowd (222), Department of
Research, University of Michigan, Ann Psychology, University of Southern Cal-
Arbor, Michigan 48106 ifornia, Los Angeles, California 90089
Priscilla Gilliam MacRae (183), Depart-
Harry R. Moody (489), Brookdale Center
ment of Sports Medicine, Pepperdine
on Aging, Hunter College, City Univer-
University, Malibu, California 90265
sity of New York, New York, New York
10010
David F. Hultsch (258), Department of
Psychology, University of Victoria, Vic-
Patricia A. Parmelee (464), Clinical Re-
toria, British Columbia, Canada V8W
search Center, Philadelphia Geriatric
2Y2
Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Margaret Hellie Huyck (124), Department 19141
of Psychology, Illinois Institute of Tech-
Robert Plomin (67), College of Health and
nology, Chicago, Illinois 60616
Human Development, Pennsylvania
James S. Jackson (103), Institute for Social State University, University Park,
Research, University of Michigan, Ann Pennsylvania 16802
Arbor, Michigan 48106
Patricia N. Prinz (135), Department of Psy-
Alfred W. Kaszniak (427), Department of chiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Uni-
Psychology, University of Arizona, Tuc- versity of Washington, Seattle, Wash-
son, Arizona 85721 ington 98195
Donald H. Kausler (171), Department of Sara H. Quails (375), Department of Psy-
Psychology, University of Missouri-Co- chology, University of Colorado at Col-
lumbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211 orado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colo-
rado 80933
Douglas C. Kimmel (489), Department of
Psychology, City College and the Grad- Timothy A. Salthouse(310), School of Psy-
uate School, City University of New chology, Georgia Institute of Tech-
York, New York, New York 10031 nology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
Nathan Kogan (330), The New School for K. Warner Schaie (291), Department of
Social Research, New York, New York Human Development and Family Stud-
10003 ies, The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania 16802
M. Powell Lawton (464), Philadelphia Ger-
iatric Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylva- Carmi Schooler (347), Laboratory of Socio-
nia 19141 Environmental Studies, NIMH, Beth-
esda, Maryland 20892
Leah L. Light (275), Department of Psy-
chology, Pitzer College, Claremont, Johannes J. F. Schroots (45), TNO Institute
California 91711 of Preventive Health Care, 2300 AC
Leiden, The Netherlands
J. J. McArdle (21), Department of Psychol-
ogy, University of Virginia, Charlot- Dean Keith Simonton (320), Department
tesville, Virginia 22901 of Psychology, University of California,
Davis, California 95616
Gerald E. McClearn [67), Center for Devel-
opmental and Health Genetics, Penn- Michael A. Smyer (357), Department of
sylvania State University, University Human Development and Family Stud-
Park, Pennsylvania 16802 ies, College of Health and Human De-
Contributors Xlll
velopment, The Pennsylvania State of Psychology, Temple University, Phil-
University, University Park, Pennsylva- adelphia, Pennsylvania 19122
nia 16802
Steven H. Zarit (375), Department of
Waneen W. Spirduso (183), Physical and Human Development and Family Stud-
Health Education, University of Texas, ies, College of Health and Human De-
Austin, Texas 78712 velopment, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pennsylva-
Diana S. Woodruff-Pak (234), Department nia 16802
Foreword
The present volume is one of three Hand- entific personnel, graduate students, and
books now in their third edition: Hand- professionals will find the volumes useful.
book of the Biology of Aging; Handbook of The availability of the information in the
the Psychology of Aging; and Handbook of convenient form of the handbooks also
Aging and the Social Sciences. Because of may stimulate new courses of instruction
the growth in research on aging, there has and seminars on aging as well as provide
been an accelerated need to collate and easy access to the research literature.
interpret existing information. Thus, the The series editor wishes to thank the
decision was made to accelerate the pub- editors of the individual volumes, Robert
lication of the third edition of these hand- H. Binstock, Linda K. George, John W.
books to reflect this expansion in research. Rowe, K. Warner Schaie, Edward L.
The growth of the National Institute on Schneider, and the associate editors, Caleb
Aging and sponsorship of research by the E. Finch, Margaret Gatz, Victor W.
National Institute of Mental Health and Marshall, George M. Martin, Edward J.
the Administration on Aging has stimu- Masoro, George C. Myers, Timothy A.
lated needed research. Phenomena of Salthouse, Carmi Schooler, and James H.
aging cut across many scientific fields. It is Schulz. The series editor is grateful to
impossible to represent all of the material these editors for their cooperation in the
that is relevant in one volume. We focus successful completion of this publication
on three major sources of influence on adventure. Thanks are owed to Donna E.
aging: the biological, the psychological, Deutchman for developing the plan for the
and the social. Perhaps in a strict sense, third edition and coordinating the rela-
one should view aging as an ecological tionship with the publisher.
phenomenon dependent upon the influ- There is little doubt from the reading of
ences of genetics, physical and social en- these volumes that the subject matter of
vironments, and individual behavior. aging has become more sophisticated and
It is hoped that these volumes will be also mainstream in many scientific disci-
consulted across scientific areas to trace plines. It is hoped that the handbooks 7
some of the pathways of aging through the publication will motivate continued at-
matrix of scientific information and disci- tention to research on aging and the well-
plinary orientation. It is expected that sci- being of the elderly in our society.
James E. Birr en
XV
Preface
The purpose of this handbook is to provide Health, the Administration on Aging, as
an authoritative review and reference well as many foundations has encouraged
source for the scientific and professional the growth of an area of knowledge that in
literature on the psychology of adult de- 1959 was pioneering in character.
velopment and aging. It is designed to Research on the psychology of aging
serve as a définitive reference source for continues to be in an expanding phase.
graduate students, researchers, and profes- Also, there is a marked change in the aca-
sionals. The basic behavioral processes are demic setting. Whereas once the psychol-
covered in the volume to attempt to de- ogy of aging was a marginal topic not com-
scribe and explain changes in behavior and monly found in the repertoire of teaching
capacities that occur with advancing age and research in departments of psychol-
as revealed in research. The explanations ogy, it is now increasingly becoming
of the phenomena involve a wide range of mainstream. Some departments have
factors, including biological influences, more than one faculty member with spe-
disease, and social influences such as gen- cialties in the subject matter. New posi-
erational differences and historical events. tions are opening in both the academic
The chapters are intended to be compre- arenas and the applied areas. This bodes
hensive but do not necessarily review or well for the future intellectual prosperity
refer to all publications on a specific point. of the field.
In contrast to an annual review, the pre- While it is devoted primarily to the un-
sent chapters attempt to present a more derstanding of phenomena of aging, it is
systematic organization of information. hoped that this volume will lead to an im-
Not only was the intention of this hand- provement in the conditions and quality of
book to organize information in a conve- human life. The editors note with pleasure
nient form, it is also designed to serve the collégial cooperation that was elicited
more systematic purposes and to focus on in preparing this handbook. The produc-
crucial theoretical or methodological tion of this volume was accompanied by
problems. prime motivation, high cooperation, and
The origin of the present third edition high academic standards.
can be traced back to the Handbook of Along with the fact that the psychology
Aging and the Individual, published in of aging has come to be a mainline concern
1959. Since then, the volume of published in psychology departments, there has been
literature has dramatically expanded. The a shift toward more theoretically oriented
influence of the National Institute on research. In the pioneering stage of the
Aging, the National Institute of Mental psychology of aging, there were many
XVll
xviii Preface
"look-and-see" investigations that helped a whole since there is continuing pressure
to map out the territory. We now seem to to make the volume manageable in size.
be shifting into a phase when crucial ex- One adaptation to the pressures was to
periments are wanted rather than descrip- create chapters which are both full length
tive ones. Thus, in the present chapters and half length in character. This has no
one finds more emphasis on systematic relationship to a presumed importance of a
explanation. topic. It is intended to reflect the extent of
Although the 1977 first edition of the recent research activity in the particular
present volume was comprehensive, the area.
demand for space in the face of increasing The editors wish to thank the associate
publication costs now requires more selec- editors, Margaret Gatz, Timothy Salt-
tivity. There are topics covered in the first house, and Carmi Schooler, for their as-
and second editions but not represented in sistance in planning the book, selecting
the present one because we felt that there topics and authors, and spending hours in
had been insufficient progress since the reviewing the chapters. Each chapter was
previous handbook editions. For this rea- read in its first and second draft by two
son, the reader is encouraged to consult persons. The editors also wish to thank the
the previous two editions for the treat- authors for their commitment to schol-
ments of particular topics. arship and producing the original drafts
Furthermore, there has been an editorial and final copies on schedule. We are
policy of enlisting new authors to prepare pleased that this handbook was assembled
reviews on topics previously covered to and produced according to schedule.
get a turnover in perspective. Thus, the The editors also wish to thank the edi-
interested reader should consult previous torial coordinator, Donna E. Deutchman,
editions to get alternative perspectives on for her professional handling of the book
material which is updated in the present and its obligations from its beginning. She
volume. Not only does an improved per- coordinated the scheduling, nudged and
spective emerge, but an historical feeling urged the authors and editors to keep to
will be experienced for shifting emphases the calendar, and she edited each chapter
in research. with care to reduce inadvertent errors and
In the second edition, two new parts best express the authors7 intentions. We
were added to the handbook which dealt also thank Alice Zeehandelaar for her pa-
with "psychological applications to the tience and skill in ensuring that manu-
individual·7 and "psychological applica- scripts, telephone messages, and corre-
tions to society." There were nine chap- spondence did not go astray.
ters written under this rubric which repre- The psychology of aging is an area in
sented the outreach from the laboratory to which researchers and professionals have
society. This was done not only to point much to contribute to advances in knowl-
out the implications of research for ap- edge gained through research, as well as to
plication, but also to encourage the back- applications for enhancing the quality of
flow of topics from "real life issues" to the life for millions of mature persons and for
laboratory. The editors believe that the in- the well-being of our society. The contrib-
tellectual prosperity of psychology de- utors and editors trust that this edition as
pends upon the movement of information well as the previous ones will advance the
to and from basic research and application. organization of research, teaching of the
In the current volume, there are fewer subject matter of adult development and
chapters in this area. But, one will note aging, and improvement of human
that there are fewer chapters in the book as services.
James E. Birren
K. Warner Schaie
One
The Concepts, Models, and History of the
Psychology of Aging
James E. Birren and Betty A. Birren
I. Introduction
as starvation, exposure to a toxic environ-
ment, or war trauma. These produce
The purpose of this chapter is to trace the atypical outcomes not experienced by
origins of the study of the psychology of most persons over the course of life. In an
aging and its concepts, leading to a descrip- earlier handbook, Birren (1959b, p. 5) said,
tion of its present state. Psychology is de- "In scientific discourse, the core meaning
scribed as the science of behavior. As this of aging implies a determinant chain of
volume shows, this embraces a broad spec- events occupying a significant part of the
trum of subject matter such as sensation, life span after maturity." Thus, a state-
perception, learning, memory, intellec- ment about the psychology of aging also
tual abilities, motivation, emotions, per- involves a statement about time and direc-
sonality, attitudes, motor movements, tions usually shown in the organization of
and social relationships. behavior. Imbedded in the concept of aging
A simple definition of the psychology of are the implications of such terms as
aging is that it is the study of the changes characteristic, typical patterns of change,
in behavior that characteristically occur and entrainment. The latter refers to the
after young adulthood. A fuller definition coalescing of influences on behavior over
of aging introduced the idea of typical time.
changes with time: ''Aging . . . refers to Aging implies something that is associ-
an orderly or regular transformation with ated with chronological age but not identi-
time of representative organisms living cal with it. Aging is used both as a label for
under representative environments (Bir- an independent variable to explain other
ren, 1988, p. 160). Excluded in this concept phenomena and as a dependent variable
of aging are age-associated disease disor- that is explained by other processes. Be-
ders such as Huntington^ Chorea, and cause the term aging is often used in a
Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Also global sense to refer to all interindividual
excluded are such environmental effects age differences and intraindividual age
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, Third Edition
Copyright © 1990 Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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