Table Of ContentHandbook of RF and Microwave
Power Amplifiers
Editedby
JOHN WALKER
IntegraTechnologies,Inc.
CAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESS
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Preface
In 1989, I was responsible for organizing a workshop at the European Microwave
ConferenceonHigh-PowerSolidStateAmplifiers.Thisworkshopprovedpopularandso
ArtechHouseaskedmetopersuadethespeakerstoturntheirmaterialintoaformsuitable
for publication, the result was the book entitled “High-Power GaAs FET Amplifiers”
of which I was editor and a coauthor. That book is of course not just out of print but
also largely out of date. This book adopts the same philosophy as the previous one
withchaptersondevicetechnology,amplifierdesign,CAD,thermaldesign,reliability,
measurements,andapplications–butwithacompletelydifferentsetofauthorsandwith
everychaptercompletelyre-writtentobringthecontentuptodate.
The political, economic and technical landscape has changed almost beyond recog-
nitionintheinterveningtwodecades.Inthe1980smostRFandmicrowaveengineers
wereworkinginmilitaryelectronics,defensespendingwaslargelyresponsibleforallthe
technicaladvances,andtherewerenomobilephones!Comparethatwiththesituation
now where there are probably just as many RF and microwave engineers working on
commercial applications as there are in military electronics, commercial applications
oftendrivetechnicaladvances,andmosthouseholdswillhavenotjustonebutseveral
mobile phones – and it is the mobile phone industry that has largely been responsible
for this shift toward commercial applications. However, there is one consequence of
this sea-change in the industrial and technical environment which has had a profound
knock-on effect when it comes to writing a book such as this. Now the commercial
pressuresofshortestpossibletimetomarketandminimumcost,etc.aresointensethat
anyprospectiveauthorworkinginthisfieldhastobepreparedtocommitendlesshours
oftheirownratherthantheiremployer’stimetothetask.Iwanttopubliclyacknowledge
my deep debt of gratitude to all the authors in this book for making that commitment
andhencemakingthisbookpossible.
JohnWalker
The“Handbook”isacomprehensivereferenceforRFandmicrowavepoweramplifiers.
Itincludesboththeoryandpracticeaswellasavarietyofdifferentapplications.Often
overlookedsupportingtopicssuchasCAD,thermaldesign,andreliabilityaretreatedin
depth. John Walker has put together an outstanding team of authors, each of whom is
well qualified to address his topic. Finally, I like the way it is organized with separate
chapters for three types of RF-power transistors (silicon, GaAs, and GaN/SiC) and
separatechaptersforamplifiersofdifferentfrequencytypes(HF/VHF/UHF,microwave,
andIC).
FritzRaab,GreenMountainRadioResearchCompany
Johnhassuccessfullybroughttogether,inonebook,thecurrentknowledgefromworld
experts actively involved with the characterisation and modelling of devices together
with those developing and designing RF and microwave power amplifiers. The timely
publicationofthisbookwillserveasausefulreferencesourceforengineersworkingin
boththecommercialandmilitarymarketsectors.
SteveNightingale,CobhamTechnicalServices
Contents
Listofcontributors pagexiv
Preface xv
1 SiliconLDMOSandVDMOStransistors:physics,design,andtechnology 1
WayneBurgerandChristopherP.Dragon
1.1 Technologyoverview 1
1.1.1 Introduction/history 1
1.2 LDMOSandVDMOSconstruction 2
1.2.1 LDMOS 2
1.2.2 VDMOS 8
1.3 Devicephysics 10
1.3.1 Currenttransport 10
1.3.2 Behaviorofparasiticelements/models 12
1.3.3 BV ,R ,HCIboundaries 17
DSS DSon
1.3.4 Snapback/ruggedness 22
1.3.5 Operatingvoltageconsiderations 26
1.4 Design/layout 27
1.4.1 Top-downfingerlayout 27
1.4.2 Bondpadmanifolds 29
1.4.3 Metaldesign–electromigration 30
1.4.4 Thermal 32
1.4.5 Operatingvoltageconsiderations 34
1.4.6 Frequencyconsiderations:gatelength,gatewidth,resistors 36
1.4.7 HVICs 37
References 39
2 GaAsFETs–physics,design,andmodels 42
RobDavis
2.1 Introduction 42
2.1.1 PropertiesofGaAsandrelatedcompounds 43
2.1.2 TheSchottkybarriergateandtheMESFET 45
2.1.3 ThePf2limit 45
2.1.4 TypesofGaAsFET 46
vi Contents
2.2 Powerdevicephysics 51
2.2.1 ThedeviceI–Vcharacteristicandloadline 51
2.2.2 ThedynamicI–Vcharacteristic 53
2.2.3 Theconsequencesoftrappingeffects 54
2.2.4 Devicebreakdown 57
2.2.5 Breakdownmechanismsandoptimisation 58
2.2.6 CommentsonGaAsFETbreakdownratings 59
2.2.7 TheFETequivalentcircuit 60
2.2.8 Devicegainandfiguresofmerit 61
2.3 Devicedesign 63
2.3.1 Powerdevicedesign 63
2.3.2 FETchannelandrecessdesign 63
2.3.3 Powercelldesign 67
2.3.4 Powercellcombination 71
2.3.5 Thermaldesign 72
2.4 Devicefabrication 74
2.4.1 Overview 74
2.4.2 Keyprocesssteps 75
2.4.3 Low-costGaAsdevicefabrication 81
2.4.4 Packaging 81
2.5 Models 84
2.5.1 Devicemodels 84
2.5.2 Small-signalmodels 84
2.5.3 Largesignalmodels 85
2.5.4 Load-pull 89
2.6 Concludingremarks 90
References 91
3 Widebandgaptransistors–SiCandGaN–physics,design
andmodels 103
RobertJ.Trew
3.1 Introduction 103
3.2 Background 105
3.2.1 SiCtransistors 106
3.2.2 AlGaN/GaNtransistors 108
3.3 Materialparameters 111
3.4 Transistoramplifieroperatingprinciples 115
3.5 DevicedesignandRFperformance 118
3.5.1 4H-SiCMESFETamplifier 120
3.5.2 AlGaN/GaNHFETamplifier 123
3.6 TransistorDCandlarge-signalRFmodels 125
3.6.1 Equivalentcircuittransistormodels 125
3.6.2 Physics-basedlarge-signaltransistormodels 128
Contents vii
3.7 Large-signaleffects 130
3.7.1 Spacechargelimitedcurrenttransport 130
3.7.2 Nonlinearsourceanddrainresistance 133
3.7.3 Gateleakage 144
3.7.4 Reliabilityandtime-dependentperformancedegradation 146
3.8 Summary 152
References 153
4 Amplifierclasses,A–S 159
SteveC.Cripps
4.1 Introduction 159
4.2 Activedevicemodels 161
4.3 ClassA 162
4.4 ClassABandClassB 164
4.5 ClassC 171
4.6 ClassF 173
4.7 ClassJ 176
4.8 Invertedmodes,invertedClassF 179
4.9 ClassE 181
4.10 ClassS 183
4.11 Multimodes 184
4.12 Conclusions 186
References 186
5 Computer-aideddesignofpoweramplifiers 188
StephenMaas
5.1 Introduction 188
5.2 Methodsofanalysis 188
5.2.1 Linearanalysis 188
5.2.2 Harmonic-balanceanalysis 193
5.2.3 Time-domainanalysis 202
5.2.4 Applicationsofanalyticalmethods 205
5.3 Passivecircuitstructuresandsimulationaccuracy 205
5.3.1 Scatteringparametermodels 206
5.3.2 Closed-formmodels 208
5.3.3 ModelsfromEMsimulation 210
5.3.4 Databasemodels 212
5.3.5 Parasiticextraction 212
5.4 Solid-statedevicemodels 213
5.4.1 Powerdevicemodels 213
5.4.2 Modelingcellinterconnectionsinlargedevices 213
5.4.3 Thermaleffectsindevicemodels 214
viii Contents
5.5 Specialaspectsofpower-amplifiermodeling 216
5.5.1 Lossincircuitmetalizations 217
5.5.2 Lossincircuitcomponents 219
5.5.3 Bondwires 219
5.6 Practicalaspectsofnonlinearcircuitsimulation 221
5.6.1 Convergencedifficulties 221
5.6.2 SPICEmodelsinharmonic-balanceanalysis 226
5.6.3 Problemsizeminimizationandsolutionoptimization 226
5.6.4 Numericalconsiderations 227
5.6.5 Designflow 228
References 230
6 PracticalHF/VHF/UHFRFpoweramplifierrealization 232
DanielP.Myer
6.1 Introduction 232
6.2 RFpoweramplifiermarkets 232
6.3 Therealizationprocess 233
6.3.1 RFPAqualitativespecificationdelineation 234
6.3.2 RFPAspecifications,genericlistandquantificationguidelines 236
6.3.3 Specification/hardwarerealization 241
6.4 RFPAsystemleveldesignoverview 242
6.4.1 RFpoweramplifiermoduledesignoverview 243
6.4.2 RFpowertransistordeviceselectionprocessguidelines 246
6.4.3 RFpowertransistorbias/thermaltrackingnetworks 249
6.4.4 RFinput/outputcoupling/decouplingnetworks 250
6.4.5 Powertransistorimpedancematching 250
6.4.6 Feedbacknetworks 251
6.4.7 Thermalmanagement 251
6.5 Hypotheticalamplifierdesignexample 252
6.5.1 Hypotheticalapplicationexampleoverview 252
6.5.2 Amplifierqualitativespecificationdelineation 252
6.5.3 Amplifierspecificationquantification 253
6.5.4 Amplifierhardwaredesign/realization 254
6.6.5 RFtransistorselection 255
6.5.6 Gatebias/temperaturetracking/compensationnetwork 257
6.5.7 Input/outputRF/DCcoupling/decouplingnetworks 259
6.5.8 Input/outputimpedancematchingnetworks 259
6.5.9 Feedbacknetwork 267
6.5.10 Testsetupconfiguration/analysis 268
6.5.11 PhysicalRFPAmoduleconstruction 271
6.5.12 RFPAmoduletestresults 273
6.5.13 Beyondthetestdata 281
References 283
Contents ix
7 Microwavehybridamplifierrealization 284
DominicFitzPatrick
7.1 Introduction 284
7.2 Printedcircuitboards 285
7.3 Housing 293
7.3.1 Materials 294
7.3.2 Sealingandhermeticity 294
7.3.3 Construction 299
7.3.4 Thermalissuesandheatsinking 305
7.3.5 RFconnections 311
7.4 Components 315
7.4.1 Passive–lumpedcomponents 315
7.4.2 Passive–distributedcomponents 323
7.4.3 Transistors 331
7.5 Amplifierdesign 333
7.5.1 Topologies 333
7.5.2 Matchingandstability 336
7.5.3 Internallymatcheddeviceamplifiers 343
7.5.4 Combining 344
7.5.5 Modulesize/systemintegration 344
7.6 Biasingandcontrol 345
7.6.1 Controlandinterfacing 352
7.7 Tuningtechniques 353
References 355
8 Monolithicpoweramplifiers 357
InderJ.Bahl
8.1 OverviewofMMICpoweramplifiers 357
8.1.1 BriefhistoryofMMICpoweramplifiers 357
8.1.2 Advantagesofmonolithicpoweramplifiers 358
8.2 MonolithicICtechnology 359
8.2.1 MMICfabrication 360
8.2.2 MMICsubstrates 361
8.2.3 MMICactivedevices 361
8.2.4 MMICmatchingelements 362
8.3 MMICdesignmethodology 370
8.3.1 CADtools 370
8.3.2 Designprocedure 371
8.3.3 EMsimulators 372
8.4 MMICPAsummaryandexamples 372
8.4.1 Narrowbandpoweramplifier 374
8.4.2 Broadbandpoweramplifiers 376
8.4.3 Ultrabroadbandpoweramplifiers 377
8.4.4 High-poweramplifiers 381
x Contents
8.4.5 Millimeter-wave2.4WPA 386
8.4.6 Wireless3Wpoweramplifier 386
8.4.7 High-voltagemonolithicPAs 387
8.5 PackagingofMMICPAs 389
8.5.1 Ceramicpackages 390
8.5.2 Plasticpackages 394
8.5.3 Packageassembly 396
8.6 MMICpoweramplifiercharacterization 401
References 406
9 RFpoweramplifierthermaldesign 411
MaliMahalingam
9.1 Whythermaldesigndeservescarefulattention? 411
9.2 RFPAthermaldesign–basics 413
9.2.1 RFPAthermaldesigninatypicalportableproduct 413
9.2.2 RFPAthermaldesigninatypicalradiobasestation 416
9.2.3 BasicheattransferprocessesandtheirroleinanRFPAthermal
performance 419
9.3 Thermo-physicalpropertiesofmaterialsinanRFPA 423
9.4 ToolstocharacterizeandpredictthethermalperformanceofRFPAs 427
9.5 RFPAthermaldesignandmanagement–advanced 432
9.6 RFPAthermaldesign–trendsandprognostication 440
References 442
10 Reliability 446
BillRoesch
10.1 Introduction 446
10.2 Vocabularyanddefinitions(units,goals,andstrategy) 447
10.2.1 Reliabilitygoals 448
10.2.2 Semiconductorreliabilitystrategy 448
10.3 Failurecriteria 449
10.4 Failuremodes 450
10.5 Failuremechanisms 451
10.5.1 Metalization 451
10.5.2 Dielectric 453
10.5.3 Bulksubstratematerial 454
10.5.4 SchottkygateFETfailurecauses 454
10.6 Failuredistributions 455
10.7 Accelerationfactors 458
10.7.1 Thermalacceleration 458
10.7.2 Currentacceleration 462
10.7.3 Voltageaccelerationfactors 465
10.7.4 RFbiasacceleration 472
