Handbook of Research on Solar Energy Systems and Technologies

616 Pages·2013·22.24 MB·English

by  Anwar

Handbook of Research on
Solar Energy Systems and
Technologies
Sohail Anwar
The Pennsylvania State University, Altoona College, USA
Harry Efstathiadis
University at Albany, State University of New York, USA
Salahuddin Qazi
State University of New York Institute of Technology at Utica/Rome, USA
Managing Director: Lindsay Johnston
Senior Editorial Director: Heather A. Probst
Book Production Manager: Sean Woznicki
Development Manager: Joel Gamon
Development Editor: Christine Smith
Assistant Acquisitions Editor: Kayla Wolfe
Typesetter: Jennifer Romanchak
Cover Design: Nick Newcomer
Published in the United States of America by
Engineering Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: [phone]
Fax: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com
Copyright © 2013 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of research on solar energy systems and technologies / Sohail Anwar, Harry Efstathiadis, and Salahuddin Qazi,
editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: “This reference serves as a one-stop resource for the latest information regarding different topical areas within
solar energy, emphasizing the application of nanotechnology innovations to solar energy technologies, exploring current and
future developments in third generation solar cells, and providing a detailed economic analysis of solar energy applications”-
-Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-4666-1996-8 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-1997-5 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-1998-2 (print & perpetual
access) 1. Solar energy. I. Anwar, Sohail. II. Efstathiadis, Harry. III. Qazi, Salahuddin, 1938-
TJ810.H34 2012
621.47--dc23
2012016891
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
xiv
Preface
Solar energy refers to the energy collected directly from sunlight. Solar power is the conversion of
sunlight into electricity, referred to as photovoltaics. Photovoltaic systems are already an important part
of our lives, powering many of the small calculators and wrist watches we use every day.
Over the last few decades, the developments in solar energy applications have made it possible to
use solar energy for most of our energy needs. At present, solar energy applications are well developed
for heating and cooling of buildings, electricity production for stationary and mobile applications, and
for environmental cleanup.
Solar technologies are broadly categorized as either passive or active, depending on how they capture,
convert, and distribute sunlight. Passive solar technologies involve selection of materials with favorable
thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of building
the sun. Active solar technologies make use of photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight
into useful outputs.
Some of the advantages of solar energy are:
• Solar power can be used in both large-scale applications and in smaller systems for homes.
• Business and industry can diversify their energy sources, improve efficiency, and save money by
choosing solar technologies for heating and cooling, industrial processes, electricity, and water
heating.
• Homeowners can use solar technologies for heating, cooling, and water heating, and these tech-
nologies may produce enough electricity to operate “off-grid” or sell the extra electricity to the
utilities, depending on local programs.
• The use of solar heating and daylighting design strategies can help both homes and commercial
buildings operate more efficiently.
The scientific stage is set for rapid progress in solar energy research. There have been advances in
nanoscience and nanotechnology, allowing unprecedented manipulation of the nanoscale structures,
controlling solar capture, conversion, and storage. Light interacts with materials on the scale of its
wavelength, a few hundred nanometers. Energy capture occurs via excited electron states confined by
defect structures or interfaces to dimensions of tens of nanometers. Conversion of excited electrons to
fuels such as ethanol, methane, or hydrogen occurs in chemical reactions at the scale of molecules. These
nanoscale processes have never been more accessible to observation and manipulation.
xv
The Handbook of Research on Solar Energy Systems and Technologies, which is divided into 20
chapters, addresses the research priorities in the topical area of solar energy. The Handbook provides
up-to-date and relevant information regarding current and future research in:
• Photovoltaic Devices (polycrystalline thin film photovoltaics; nanocrystalline silicon solar cells,
non-silicon based photovoltaics; CdTe based solar cells; polymer based solar cells; tandem solar
cells and third generation solar cells).
• Nanostructures for solar energy conversion
• Solar energy conversion materials
• Solar energy storage
• The economics of solar energy
• Application of nanotechnology innovations to solar energy technologies
Chapter 1 focuses on the control and conversion of solar energy. The conversion of solar energy into
thermal and electrical energy constitutes a key topical area for renewable energy. Solar electric systems
find applications in rural electricity generation, water pumping, and satellite communications. Solar
power is harvested and stored by charging rechargeable batteries. This chapter describes design and
implementation of a solar battery charger using a single ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC).
Chapter 2 presents coverage of different methods and technologies used for the solar thermal stor-
age in the terrestrial and space applications. The performance enhancement of these technologies using
nanotechnology is also described. Moreover, this chapter provides coverage of various economic and
environmental feasibility studies focusing on the storage of solar energy. Recommendations are made for
developing new methods and enhancing the performance of existing techniques used to store solar energy.
In the case of solar energy, it is shown that optimal energy is obtained when the rays of the sun are
incident normally on the collecting surface. Therefore, several techniques and experiments have been
conducted recently to develop efficient solar tracking systems. Solar panel tracking systems optimize
energy output of photovoltaic panels by positioning them to follow the sun’s path throughout the day. The
sun’s position in the sky varies both with installation location, the seasons, and the time of day. Currently,
most solar panels have fixed orientation to the sky and do not turn to follow the sun. To increase the unit
area illumination of sunlight on solar panels, the design of a solar tracking electricity generation system
is described in Chapter 3. The design mechanism holds the solar panel and allows the panel to track the
sun’s movement during the day and improve the overall electricity generation. This system can achieve
the maximum illumination and energy concentration and cut the cost of electricity by requiring fewer
solar panels. An electro-optical control unit tracks the sun by a solar detecting device that is sensitive
to solar radiance. The simulation is experimental results verifying the effectiveness of the light tracking
solar system is presented in this chapter.
The photovoltaic (PV) systems extensively use advanced power electronics technologies. Power
electronics provides a useful means of efficiency improvement in the photovoltaic and the solar-thermal
energy systems. Furthermore, the use of appropriate power electronics enables solar generated electric-
ity to be integrated into power grid. Chapter 4 provides a detailed description of the current advances
in power electronics that enable the photovoltaic systems to become a real power source for the power
utility grid and for many stand-alone applications. The future developments in power electronics and
controls that are expected to lead to more efficient solar energy systems and devices are also discussed
in this chapter.
xvi
Currently, there is a significant research interest in third generation thin-film solar cells such as all-
silicon tandem solar cells and multi-junction solar cells targeting substantial improvements in energy
conversion efficiency leading to a reduction in the overall power costs. The semiconductor bandgap can
be controlled by quantum-confinement of carriers in small quantum-dots dispersed in an amorphous
matrix of silicon oxide, nitride, and polymer materials. Cells based on “hot” carriers are also of great
interest since they offer the potential for very high efficiency from simple device structures. Chapter 5
provides a detailed account of the first, second, and the third generation of solar cells.
It has been shown that the use of nanotechnology in the form of quantum dots, nanorods, and nanotubes,
results in an enhancement of absorption of sunlight and an increase in the efficiency of photovoltaic cells.
Chapter 6 provides a comprehensive coverage of the nanotechnology applications in photovoltaic systems.
The chapter describes the use of nanotechnology in the implementation of low cost, highly efficient,
and easy to implement photovoltaic cells. Future research directions are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 7 focuses on Copper Indium Galluim Selenide (CIGS) and the nanocrystaline silicon solar
cells. Heterojunctions based on CIGS have been studied for several years, and have shown very stable
performance in field tests. The chapter covers various preparation methods for CIGS solar cells, the effects
of composition ratio on the performance, doping profiles, alternative buffer layers, low cost fabrication
techniques, as well as global market trends. Nanocrystalline silicon films have also recently attracted
attention for use in photovoltaic solar cells as they provide an approach which results in lower cost and
higher efficiency than conventional solar cells. Furthermore, silicon based nanoparticles or superlat-
tices may be integrated with other materials for bandgap-engineered devices. Designed appropriately,
variation of the effective bandgap across the device allows a larger portion of the solar spectrum to be
coupled into the solar cell increasing the conversion efficiency.
Surface plasmons are oscillations of electrons arising from surface effects of light interaction with
materials having significant free carrier densities. Surface plasmons have been recently utilized in a
variety of methods used to increase the efficiency of solar cells. Research on silicon-based plasmonic
solar cells has made use of the high scattering cross sections and favorable angular distributions of noble
metal nanoparticle-scattered radiation to increase absorption of thin silicon devices. Chapter 8 focuses
on the surface plasmon-enhanced thin film silicon solar cells. The chapter provides a comprehensive
description of the current research related to these cells.
Polymer solar cells are cheaper to produce than conventional inorganic solar cells and can be processed
at relatively low temperatures. The polymer solar cells can be fabricated on surfaces of arbitrary shape
and flexibility. Therefore, polymer solar cells are likely to play an important role in addressing, at least
in some small part, future energy needs. Chapter 9 provides coverage of the physics of polymer solar
cells with a special emphasis on the computational tools. Two computer simulation models discussed
in this chapter include the drift diffusion model and the Monte Carlo model.
Solar cells made from III-V materials are expensive, but outperform other solar cells. The polycrys-
talline III-V thin film solar cells on dissimilar substrates such as metal or glass can provide a low-cost
venue for photovoltaic solar energy. The highly developed technology base of III-V semiconductors
should favor this approach. Chapter 10 provides a detailed account of III-V solar cells. Different ap-
proaches for development of III-V solar cells are analyzed and compared with each other. The future
prospects for low-cost III-V compound solar cells are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 11 provides an overview of the analytical techniques used for solar cells material charac-
terization. The advantages and disadvantages of such techniques are compared. Most of these materials
characterization techniques are based on the same principle, that is, an incident beam of photons or
xvii
charged particles interacting with specimen resulting in various types of signals. An appropriate detection
system is used to collect these signals, and then the data are analyzed to gain information regarding the
material properties being studied. The analytical techniques described in this chapter are categorized as
imaging, compositional analysis, and the structural analysis methods.
Chapter 12 provides description of a mechatronic real-time solar tracker. The tracking array for
the solar cell is pivoted on two axes using stepper motors to reflect the effects of daily and seasonal
trajectories of the sun. The solar tracker described in this chapter is an example of the application of
mechantronics in the discipline of renewable energy. The chapter content provides details regarding the
design, programming, and the prototyping of this solar tracking system.
Computer simulations are commonly used for analyzing solar energy systems. The interaction of
light with matter at a nanoscale level provides useful information regarding the structured and dynami-
cal properties of photonic devices. The use of computer simulations will continue to increase as the re-
searchers and developers face the challenges associated with the design and development of new devices
and systems. Although Chapter 13 focuses on the development and application of the Finite Difference
Time-Domain method to solar energy systems, it provides an overview of the new computational models
covering the latest developments in nanophotonics technologies. The key improvements in the numeric
solvers and new usability features are also described in this chapter.
Image processing is extensively utilized in solar cell research, device development, process control,
and quality assurance. The use of solar image processing is expanding due to performance enhancement
of commercial CCD and infrared cameras. Chapter 14 provides a comprehensive description of the key
solar image processing methods and their applications. However, the emphasis of this chapter is on
monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cells using infrared and visible wavelengths.
Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques are of significant importance in modeling, analysis, and predic-
tion of the performance of renewable energy systems. Chapter 15 provides a comprehensive coverage
of the commonly used artificial intelligence (AI) techniques in solar energy. The chapter places an em-
phasis on neural networks, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms. Selected AI applications in solar energy
are also described in this chapter. Instead of complex rules and mathematical routines, AI techniques
are able to learn the key information patterns within a multidimensional information domain. Design,
control, and operation of solar energy systems require long-term series of meteorological data such as
solar radiation, temperature or wind data. Such long-term measurements are often non-existent for most
of the interest locations or, wherever they are available, they suffer of a number of shortcomings (e.g.
poor quality of data, insufficient long series, etc.). To overcome these problems, AI techniques appear
to be one of the strongest candidates.
Chapter 16 provides a detailed account of the time series and neural network methodologies used for
solar radiation forecasting. The time series methodologies described in this chapter include autoregressive
(AR), moving average (MA), autoregressive moving average (ARMA), and autoregressive integrated
moving average (AIMA). The chapter also presents a detailed comparison of the solar radiation fore-
casting techniques. The advantages and disadvantages of using the neural network approach for solar
radiation forecasting are outlined in this chapter.
Chapter 17 provides a description of the different solar thermal applications of greenhouse structure.
Greenhouse structures are used to provide the ideal conditions required for the growth of agricultural
crops throughout the year. Topics covered in the chapter include an introduction to the concept and
importance of greenhouse technology, solar thermal applications in different greenhouse systems, and
the use of photovoltaic systems for greenhouse drying. In this chapter, there is a special emphasis on
greenhouse fish pond system design and working principles.
xviii
As Saudi Arabia is going through a significant economic and technological development, the country
needs additional electric power generation to sustain the economic growth. Fossil fuels, however, are
not sustainable as they are subject to eventful depletion. Chapter 18 provides an examination of power
generation alternatives for Saudi Arabia. Since the country is blessed with an abundant solar flux through-
out the year, the construction of solar powered electrical generation plants in Saudi Arabia is proposed.
However, due to the availability of different solar technologies, it is important to determine the optimal
technology. In this chapter, a mathematical model called Hierarchical Decision Model (HDM) is used
to make the technology selection.
Given the expanding use of solar energy, there is a need to educate society about solar energy. Thus,
solar energy education and training programs should be developed at different educational levels to
fulfill this need. Such programs need to recognize the environmental value of solar energy and the life
cycle advantages of solar energy systems. Chapter 19 provides an overview of the status of solar en-
ergy education and training in the United States. Though the focus of this chapter is on the solar energy
education and training programs provided by the academic institutions in the USA, a short description
of non-academic programs is also provided.
Chapter 20 describes a project-based international collaboration in renewable energy systems design
and implementation. The collaboration involves several educational institutions in Europe and USA.
Working in teams, the undergraduate students at the partner institutions gain valuable experience in
renewable energy systems design and construction. The participating students also learn effective team-
work and project management skills.
Sohail Anwar
The Pennsylvania State University, Altoona College, USA
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................................................xiv
Chapter 1
Control and Conversion of Solar Power ................................................................................................1
Liping Guo, Northern Illinois University, USA
Chapter 1 focuses on the control and conversion of solar energy. The conversion of solar energy into
thermal and electrical energy constitutes a key topical area for renewable energy. Solar electric systems
find applications in rural electricity generation, water pumping, and satellite communications. Solar
power is harvested and stored by charging rechargeable batteries. This chapter describes design and
implementation of a solar battery charger using a single ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC).
Chapter 2
Solar Energy Storage: An Approach for Terrestrial and Space Applications ........................................19
Ahmed Elgafy, University of Cincinnati, USA
Solar energy can be stored in several different forms, such as thermal, electric, hybrid thermal/electric,
thermochemical, and photochemical. Chapter 2 presents different techniques and technologies used for
the solar thermal energy storage in the terrestrial and space applications. Performance enhancement of
these technologies using nanotechnology is also described. Economic and environmental feasibility
studies relevant to solar energy storage are also presented in this chapter.
Chapter 3
Solar Photovoltaic Servo Tracking Controlled System .......................................................................48
Murad Shibli, Abu Dhabi Polytechnic, Institute of Applied Technologies, UAE
Chapter 3 describes a solar tracking electricity generation system to increase the unit area sunlight illu-
mination on solar panels. The design mechanism allows the panel to track the movement of sun during
the day and improve the overall electricity generation. The system achieves the maximum illumination
and energy concentration and reduces the cost of electricity by requiring fewer solar panels.
Chapter 4
Power Electronics and Controls in Solar Photovoltaic Systems ..........................................................68
Radian Belu, Drexel University, USA & Desert Research Institute, USA
The photovoltaic (PV) systems extensively use advanced power electronics technologies. Power elec-
tronics provides a useful means of efficiency improvement in the photovoltaic and the solar-thermal
energy systems. Chapter 4 provides a detailed description of the current advances in power electronics
that enable the photovoltaic systems to become a real power source for the power utility grid and for
many stand-alone applications. The future developments in power electronics and controls that are
expected to lead to more efficient solar energy systems and devices are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 5
Photovoltaic Devices .........................................................................................................................126
Ashraf Uddin, University of New South Wales, Australia
Currently, there is a significant research interest in third generation thin-film solar cells such as all-silicon
tandem solar cells and multi-junction solar cells targeting substantial improvements in energy conver-
sion efficiency leading to a reduction in the overall power costs. Chapter 5 provides a detailed account
of the first, second, and the third generation of solar cells.
Chapter 6
Nanotechnology for Photovoltaic Energy: Challenges and Potentials ...............................................163
Salahuddin Qazi, State University of New York Institute of Technology, USA
Farhan A. Qazi, Syracuse University, USA
It has been shown that the use of nanotechnology in the form of quantum dots, nanorods, and nanotubes,
results in an enhancement of absorption of sunlight and an increase in the efficiency of photovoltaic
cells. Chapter 6 provides a comprehensive coverage of the nanotechnology applications in photovoltaic
systems. Future research directions are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 7
CuInGaSe Based Thin Films for Photovoltaic Solar Cells ................................................................192
Harry Efstathiadis, University at Albany, State University of New York, USA
Adam Filios, Farmingdale State College, State University of New York, USA
This chapter focuses on Copper Indium Galluim Selenide (CIGS) and the nanocrystaline silicon solar
cells. Heterojunctions based on CIGS have demonstrated very stable performance in the field tests. The
preparation methods for CIGS solar cells and their doping profiles are described in this chapter. The
global market trends are also discussed.
Chapter 8
Nanoparticle Scattering, Absorption, and Interface Effects for Surface Plasmon Enhanced Thin
Silicon Solar Cells: Theory, Past Findings, and Future Directions .....................................................210
Nirag Kadakia, State University of New York at Albany, USA
Surface plasmons are oscillations of electrons arising from surface effects of light interaction with materi-
als having significant free carrier densities. Surface plasmons have been recently utilized in a variety of
methods used to increase the efficiency of solar cells. Research on silicon-based plasmonic solar cells
has made use of the high scattering cross sections and favorable angular distributions of noble metal
nanoparticle-scattered radiation to increase absorption of thin silicon devices. This chapter focuses
on the surface plasmon-enhanced thin film silicon solar cells. The chapter provides a comprehensive
description of the current research related to these cells.
Chapter 9
Nanotechnology and Polymer Solar Cells ..........................................................................................231
Gavin Buxton, Robert Morris University, USA
Polymer solar cells are cheaper to produce than conventional inorganic solar cells and can be processed
at relatively low temperatures. The polymer solar cells can be fabricated on surfaces of arbitrary shape
and flexibility. This chapter provides coverage of the physics of polymer solar cells with a special em-
phasis on the computational tools. Two computer simulation models discussed in this chapter include
the drift diffusion model and the Monte Carlo model.
Chapter 10
Low-Cost III-V Compound Semiconductor Solar Cells: Progress and Prospects ..............................254
Michael G. Mauk, Drexel University, USA
Solar cells made from III-V materials are expensive, but outperform other solar cells. The polycrystalline
III-V thin film solar cells on dissimilar substrates such as metal or glass can provide a low-cost venue
for photovoltaic solar energy. The highly developed technology base of III-V semiconductors should
favor this approach. This chapter provides a detailed account of III-V solar cells. Different approaches
for development of III-V solar cells are analyzed and compared with each other. The future prospects
for low-cost III-V compound solar cells are also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 11
Materials Characterization Techniques for Solar Cell Devices: Imaging, Compositional and Structural
Analysis...............................................................................................................................................294
Michael S. Hatzistergos, International Business Machines (IBM), USA
& University at Albany, State University of New York, USA
This chapter provides an overview of the analytical techniques used for solar cells material character-
ization. The advantages and disadvantages of such techniques are compared. Most of these materials
characterization techniques are based on the same principle, that is, an incident beam of photons or
charged particles interacting with specimen resulting in various types of signals. An appropriate detec-
tion system is used to collect these signals, and then the data are analyzed to gain information regarding
the material properties being studied. The analytical techniques described in this chapter are categorized
as imaging, compositional analysis, and the structural analysis methods.
Chapter 12
Mechatronics Technology for Solar Cells ..........................................................................................308
H. Henry Zhang, Purdue University, USA
Danny Rodriguez, Purdue University, USA
Qiong Li, Purdue University, USA
This chapter provides description of a mechatronic real-time solar tracker. The tracking array for the solar
cell is pivoted on two axes using stepper motors to reflect the effects of daily and seasonal trajectories
of the sun. The solar tracker described in this chapter is an example of the application of mechantron-
ics in the discipline of renewable energy. The chapter content provides details regarding the design,
programming, and the prototyping of this solar tracking system.