Handbook of particle detection and imaging

1249 Pages·2011·26.71 MB·English

by  Claus Grupen, Irène Buvat (eds.)

HandbookofParticleDetectionandImaging

Claus Grupen andIrèneBuvat(Eds.)
Handbook of Particle
Detection and Imaging
WithFiguresandTables
123
Editors
ClausGrupen IrèneBuvat
DepartmentofPhysics IMNC-UMR8165CNRS
SiegenUniversity Paris7andParis11Universities
Emmy-Noether-Campus OrsayCampus
Walter-Flex-Str.3 Building440
57072Siegen 91406OrsayCedex
Germany France
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011934762
ISBN978-3-642-13270-4
DOI10.1007/978-3-642-13271-1
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Acknowledgments
ClausGrupenwouldliketothankProfessorDouglasMcGregor,Ph.D.,KansasStateUniversity,
forhiscontributionstothehandbookintheinitialphaseofpreliminaryconceptionandplan-
ning.TheprofessionalhelpofDr.TiloStroh,SiegenUniversity,inquestionsofproofreading,
layoutandLaTeXhandlingisacknowledged.
IrèneBuvatwouldliketothankallherstudentsfornever-endingstimulatingdiscussions
thatpartlymotivatedtheinvolvementinco-editingthisbook.Sheisalsodeeplyandvariously
indebtedtoDr.StephenBacharachandDr.RobertDiPaolawhotaughthersomuch.

Preface
Sophisticatedinstrumentationsandimagingdeviceshavebecomepowerfultoolsinthemodern
worldoftechnology.Advancesinelectronics,fastdataprocessing,imagereconstruction,and
patternrecognition,justtonameafew,haveenabledthedevelopmentofveryelaborateinves-
tigationtechniquesthatarenowusedinmanydifferentfieldsofscienceandmanydomainsof
applications.Alargenumberoftechnologicaladvanceswereoriginally developedinparticle
physics,butthenspreadtoastrophysics,medicine,biology,materialsscience,art,archaeology,
andmanyotherapplicationdomains.
Thefieldofimaginghasknownincredibleadvancesintherecentdecades.Withatomicforce
microscopesorscanningforcemicroscopes,very-high-resolutionimagescannowbeobtained.
Resolutions onthe orderof fractions of a nanometer,more than times betterthan the
opticaldiffractionlimithavebeenreached.Withthescanningtunnelingmicroscope,atomscan
evenbedraggedalongandpositionedtobuildatomic-scaleartificialstructures.Increasingly
higherresolutionsrequiremoreandmorestoragespace.ATriumphcalculatorfromthefifties
inthelastcenturyusingferritecoreshadastoragecapacityofbits!TheLargeHadronCollider
(LHC)atCERNwillproduceroughlypetabytes(milliongigabytes)ofdataannually.The
discoveryofagiantmagnetoresistancebytheNobellaureatesPeterGrünbergandAlbert
Fertenabledabreakthroughingigabyteharddiskdrives,andsothistechniqueallowsmassive
numbercrunchingandcancopewithhugedatafiles.
Also the image quality and image reconstruction accuracy have substantially increased.
Foradecentphotooneneedsmorethanmillionphotons intheoptical range.Inobser-
vationalastronomythesensitivityofinstrumentshasimprovedoveraperiodofyears–
fromGalileo’stelescopetotheHubbleSpace Telescope–byafactorofmillions. Forthe
discovery of an X-ray source in our galaxy, approximately photons are sufficient. Using
theimagingatmosphericCherenkovtechnique,thediscoveryofagamma-raysourcecanbe
claimedifmorethanaboutphotons–withlittlebackground–comefromthesamepointin
thesky.Theseadvancesalsocomeaboutbecausehigh-resolutionpixeldetectorsareavailable.
Inthesthebestcharge-sensitiveamplifiersusedforthereadoutofsemiconductorcounters
hadanoiselevelequivalenttothatofelectrons.Nowadaysonecanunambiguouslycount
singleelectrons,becausethenoiselevelhasdecreasedbyafactorof.
Imagingalsoplays a majorrole in medical diagnosis.The old X-raytechnique hasbeen
improvedandhasbeenmademoresensitivebyusingimageintensifiers.Antiparticles,discov-
eredincosmicraysinthethirtiesofthelastcenturyarenowroutinelyusedinpositronemission
tomography(PET)forcancerdiagnosisandtherapymonitoring.Alsoγraysareusedingamma
cameras,scintigraphy,singlephotonemissioncomputedtomography(SPECT),andPET,with
allsortsofdiagnosticindications,includingsuspicionofheartorbraindisease.Theoperation
ofComptontelescopes,knownfromastroparticlephysicsexperiments,hasnowfounditsway
intomedicaldiagnosisasComptoncameras,althoughimagereconstruction from Compton
camerasremainsamajorchallenge.
Beyonddiagnosticimaging,nucleartechniqueshavealsoenteredthedomainofmedical
therapy.Thestrongionizationofchargedparticlesattheendoftheirrange(Braggpeak)has
initiatednewmethodsincancertreatment(particletherapy)withsubstantialadvantagesover
viii Preface
therapy with cobalt- γ rays. Apart from γ rays and charged particles, also neutrons have
importantapplicationsintherapy.
On the detector side, a lot of progress has also been achieved. Early detectors, like the
Wilsoncloudchamber,providedlotsofdetailsaboutchargedparticlesandtheirinteractions.
Onedrawbackwasapoortimeresolutionorrepetitiontime.Ifyoucanonlyrecordoneevent
perminute,suchadetectorisnotsuitedforacceleratorexperiments.IntheLHC,protonscol-
lideeverynanoseconds,resultinginapossibleeventrateofmillionpersecond.Modern
detectorscannotonlymeasurethespatialcoordinates,theenergyandmomentumofaparti-
cle,buttheycanalsodeterminetheidentityoftheparticle.Particleidentificationisessentialfor
theunambiguouscharacterizationofinteractionsornewparticleproduction.Thesetechniques
arealsoimportantinmanyotherfieldsmeasuringelectromagneticradiationasγrays,Xrays,
terahertzradiation,ultraviolett(UV),orinfrared(IR)photonsuptomicrowavephotons.
Thishandbookcentersondetectiontechniquesinthefieldofparticlephysics,medicalimag-
ing,andrelatedsubjects.Itisstructuredintofourparts.Thefirsttwopartsdealwithbasicideas
about particle detectors,like interactions of radiation and particles with matterand specific
typesofdetectors.Inthethird partapplications ofthesedevicesinhighenergyphysics and
relatedfieldsare presented.Finally, the lastpart concerns the ever-growing field of medical
imagingusingsimilardetectiontechniques.Thedifferentchaptersofthebookarewrittenby
well-knownexpertsintheirfield.Clearinstructions onthedetectiontechniquesandprinci-
plesintermsofrelevantoperationparametersforscientistsandgraduatestudentsaregiven.
Detailedtables,diagrams,andfigureswillmakethisaveryusefulhandbookfortheapplication
ofthesetechniquesinmanydifferentfieldslikephysics,medicine,biology,otherareasofnatural
science,andapplicationsinmetrologyandtechnology.Also,itisourhopethatsuchabroadpre-
sentationofparticledetectorsandradiation-basedimagingcanbeasourceofcross-fertilization
betweendifferentfieldsofapplications.
IrèneBuvatandClausGrupen
OrsayandSiegen
June
About the Editors
ClausGrupen
ProfessorofPhysics
DepartmentofPhysics
FacultyofNaturalScienceandEngineering
SiegenUniversity
Emmy-Noether-Campus
Walter-Flex-Str.3
57072Siegen
Germany
ClausGrupenstudiedphysicsandmathematicsatKielUniversity,Germany.Hereceivedhis
Ph.D.inphysicswithathesison‘ElectromagneticInteractionsofCosmicRayMuons’().
In/hebecameVisitingFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofEngland,UniversityofDurham,
cooperatingwithSirArnoldWolfendaleoncosmicrayphysics.InhechangedtoSiegen
University and obtained his habilitation on his cosmic ray work (). As member of the
PLUTOexperimentheworkedonelectron–positroninteractionsatthestorageringsDORIS
andPETRAatDESYinHamburg(–).HebecamefullprofessoratSiegenUniversity
in.InhereceivedtheSpecialHighEnergyandParticlePhysicsPrizeoftheEuropean
Physical Society for the Discoveryof the Gluon in,jointly with membersof the JADE,
MarkJ,PLUTO,andTASSOCollaborations.Inandhespentsabbaticalsasvisiting
professorattheUniversityofTokyoandasscientificassociateatCERN(,,and).
FromonheismemberoftheALEPHexperiment(electron–positroninteractionsatthe
+ −
worldlargeste e colliderLEP)atCERN.
Professor Grupen is author of a number of textbooks on physics (Particle Detectors
; second edition (with Boris Shwartz) ; Astroparticle Physics ; Introduction to
RadiationProtection).
ProfessorGrupenhasorganizedanumberofsymposia,isrefereeforphysicsjournals,and
heismemberofanumberofinstitutions.
He served as Dean of the physics department at Siegen University /; –;
and –, and he is still active in research after his retirement in  working on
the KASCADE-Grande and LOPES experiments at the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe on
astroparticlephysics.
x AbouttheEditors
IrèneBuvat
IMNC-UMR8165CNRS
Paris7andParis11Universities
OrsayCampus
Building440
91406OrsayCedex
France
Irène Buvat has received her Ph.D. degree in particle and nuclear physics from Paris Sud
University,France,in.Duringherthesis,sheorientedhercareertowardsapplicationsof
NuclearPhysicsforMedicalImaging.Shespentoneyearasapost-docatUniversityCollege
London,UK,workingonSinglePhotonEmissionComputedTomography(SPECT)andtwo
years atthe National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA, specializing in Positron Emission
Tomography(PET).In,sheenteredtheFrenchCNRS(CentreNationaldelaRecherche
Scientifique)andiscurrentlytheheadofa“QuantificationinMolecularImaging”teamofthe
“ImagingandModellinginNeurobiologyandCancerology”CNRSlabinOrsay,France.Her
researchactivities focus ondeveloping correction andtomographic reconstruction methods
inPETandSPECTtoimprovetheaccuracyandreducethevariabilityofmeasurementsmade
fromPETandSPECTimages.HermethodologicalapproachisbasedontheuseofMonteCarlo
simulationstoinvestigatealldetailsoftheforwardimagingprocesssoastoidentifykeyaspects
tobeconsideredwhendevelopingquantificationmethods.Sheiscurrentlythespokesperson
oftheworldwideOpenGATEcollaborationdevelopingtheGATEMonteCarlosimulationtool
dedicatedtoMonteCarlosimulationsinemissionandtransmissiontomographyandradiother-
apy.IrèneBuvatisalsolargelyinvolvedintomakingquantificationinSPECTandPETaclinical
reality.Shecontributedtoanumberofstudiesdemonstratingtheclinicalvaluesofsophisticated
quantificationtoimproveimageinterpretation,andobtainedalargenumberofresearchcon-
tractswiththemajorcompaniesinthefield.Shehasauthoredorco-authoredmorethan
peer-reviewedarticles.
IrèneBuvatteachesmedicalphysicsinseveralFrenchUniversities(Nantes,Lyon,ParisSud).
Sheactsasanassociateeditorof“IEEETransactionsonMedicalImaging”andof“IEEETransac-
tionsonNuclearScience”andservesontheEditorialBoardofthe“JournalofNuclearMedicine”
andontheInternationalAdvisoryBoardof“PhysicsinMedicineandBiology.”