Table Of Contenti
Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and
Molecular Imaging for Physicists
ii
Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering
Series Editors: Kwan Hoong Ng, E. Russell Ritenour, Slavik Tabakov,
Recent books in the series:
Clinical Radiotherapy Physics with MATLAB: A Problem- Solving Approach
Pavel Dvorak
Advances in Particle Therapy: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Manjit Dosanjh and Jacques Bernier (Eds)
Radiotherapy and Clinical Radiobiology of Head and Neck Cancer
Loredana G. Marcu, Iuliana Toma- Dasu, Alexandru Dasu, and Claes Mercke
Problems and Solutions in Medical Physics: Diagnostic Imaging Physics
Kwan Hoong Ng, Jeannie Hsiu Ding Wong, and Geoffrey D. Clarke
Advanced and Emerging Technologies in Radiation Oncology Physics
Siyong Kim and John W. Wong (Eds)
A Guide to Outcome Modeling In Radiotherapy and Oncology: Listening to the Data
Issam El Naqa (Ed)
Advanced MR Neuroimaging: From Theory to Clinical Practice
Ioannis Tsougos
Quantitative MRI of the Brain: Principles of Physical Measurement, Second edition
Mara Cercignani, Nicholas G. Dowell, and Paul S. Tofts (Eds)
A Brief Survey of Quantitative EEG
Kaushik Majumdar
Handbook of X- ray Imaging: Physics and Technology
Paolo Russo (Ed)
Graphics Processing Unit- Based High Performance Computing in Radiation Therapy
Xun Jia and Steve B. Jiang (Eds)
Targeted Muscle Reinnervation: A Neural Interface for Artificial Limbs
Todd A. Kuiken, Aimee E. Schultz Feuser, and Ann K. Barlow (Eds)
Emerging Technologies in Brachytherapy
William Y. Song, Kari Tanderup, and Bradley Pieters (Eds)
Environmental Radioactivity and Emergency Preparedness
Mats Isaksson and Christopher L. Rääf
The Practice of Internal Dosimetry in Nuclear Medicine
Michael G. Stabin
iii
Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and
Molecular Imaging for Physicists
Modelling, Dosimetry, and Radiation Protection, Volume II
Edited by
Michael Ljungberg
iv
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Ljungberg, Michael, editor.
Title: Handbook of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging for physicists / edited by Michael Ljungberg.
Description: Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2021– |
Series: Series in medical physics and biomedical engineering | Includes bibliographical references. |
Contents: volume 2. Modelling, dosimetry and radiation, protection – volume 3.
Radiopharmaceuticals and clinical applications.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021048048 | ISBN 9781138593299 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781032059549 (paperback) | ISBN 9780429489549 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Nuclear medicine. | Molecular diagnosis. | Diagnostic imaging.
Classification: LCC RC78.7.R4 H37 2021 | DDC 616.07/575–dc23/eng/20211001
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021048048
ISBN: 978- 1- 138- 59329- 9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 05954- 9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978- 0- 429- 48954- 9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/ 9780429489549
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781138593299
v
Contents
Preface .............................................................................................................................................................................vii
Editor ................................................................................................................................................................................ix
Contributors .....................................................................................................................................................................xi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Biostatistics ........................................................................................................................1
Johan Gustafsson and Markus Nilsson
Chapter 2 Radiobiology .............................................................................................................................................17
Lidia Strigari and Marta Cremonesi
Chapter 3 Diagnostic Dosimetry ................................................................................................................................33
Lennart Johansson† and Martin Andersson
Chapter 4 Time- activity Curves: Data, Models, Curve Fitting, and Model Selection ...............................................69
Gerhard Glatting
Chapter 5 Tracer Kinetic Modelling and Its Use in PET Quantification ...................................................................83
Mark Lubberink and Michel Koole
Chapter 6 Principles of Radiological Protection in Healthcare ...............................................................................101
Sören Mattsson
Chapter 7 Controversies in Nuclear Medicine Dosimetry .......................................................................................115
Michael G. Stabin
Chapter 8 Monte Carlo Simulation of Photon and Electron Transport in Matter ....................................................123
José M. Fernández‑V area
Chapter 9 Patient Models for Dosimetry Applications ............................................................................................141
Michael G. Stabin
Chapter 10 Patient- specific Dosimetry Calculations .................................................................................................155
Manuel Bardiès, Naomi Clayton, Gunjan Kayal, and Alex Vergara Gil
Chapter 11 Whole- body Dosimetry ...........................................................................................................................169
Jonathan Gear
Chapter 12 Personalized Dosimetry in Radioembolization .......................................................................................183
Remco Bastiaannet and Hugo W.A.M. de Jong
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vi
vi Contents
Chapter 13 Thyroid Imaging and Dosimetry .............................................................................................................207
Michael Lassmann and Heribert Hänscheid
Chapter 14 Bone Marrow Dosimetry .........................................................................................................................223
Cecilia Hindorf
Chapter 15 Cellular and Multicellular Dosimetry......................................................................................................235
Roger W. Howell
Chapter 16 Alpha- particle Dosimetry ........................................................................................................................267
Stig Palm
Chapter 17 Staff Radiation Protection .......................................................................................................................275
Lena Jönsson
Chapter 18 IAEA Support to Nuclear Medicine ........................................................................................................293
Gian Luca Poli
vii
Preface
During the spring of 2017, I was writing a review of a proposal for a book to potentially be published by CRC Press.
Upon closing the discussion with CRC Press regarding the result of this review, I was asked to be an editor for a hand-
book of nuclear medicine, with focus on physicists of this field. After spending the summer thinking about a relevant
table of contents and related potential authors, I formally accepted the offer. I soon realized that the field of nuclear medi-
cine was too extensive to be covered in a single book. After consolidating with the publisher, it was decided that instead
of one book it would be best to develop three volumes with the titles, (I) Instrumentation and Imaging Procedures,
(II) Modelling, Dosimetry, and Radiation Protection, and (III) Radiopharmaceuticals and Clinical Applications.
My vision was to create state-o f- the- art handbooks, encompassing all major aspects relating to the field of Nuclear
Medicine. The chapters should describe the theories in detail but also, when applicable, have a practical approach,
focusing on procedures and equipment that are either in use today, or could be expected to be of importance in the
future. I realized that the topic of each chapter would be broad enough, in principle, to lay the foundation for individual
books of their own. As such, the chapters needed only cover the most relevant aspects of each topic. Therefore, this book
series will, hopefully, serve as references for different aspects relating to both the academic and the clinical practice of
a medical physicist.
I originally struggled with the definition of the word ‘handbook’. I did not want the chapters to serve as point-b y-
point guidelines, but rather to function as independent chapters to be read more or less independently of one another.
Consequently, there is some overlap in the content between chapters but, from a pedagogical point of view, I do not see
this as a drawback, as repetition of key aspects may aid in the learning.
This second volume of three focuses on mathematical modelling, dosimetry, and radiation protection.
Mathematical modelling is an important part of nuclear medicine. Therefore, several chapters of this book have
been dedicated towards describing this topic. In these chapters, an emphasis has been put on describing mathemat-
ical modelling of radiation transport of photons and electrons, as well as on transportation of radiopharmaceuticals
between different organs and compartments. It also includes computer models of patient dosimetry. Two chapters
of this book are also devoted towards introducing the concept of biostatistics and radiobiology. These chapters are
followed by chapters detailing dosimetry procedures commonly used in the context of diagnostic imaging, as well
as patient- specific dosimetry for radiotherapy treatments. For safety reasons, many of the methods used in nuclear
medicine and molecular imaging are strictly regulated. Therefore, this book also highlights the basic principles
for radiation protection. It also describes the process of how guidelines and regulations aimed at minimizing radi-
ation exposure are determined and implemented by international organizations. Finally, this book describes how
different dosimetry methods may be utilized depending on the intended target, including whole-b ody or organ-
specific imaging, as well as small- scale dosimetry down to cellular dosimetry.
These three volumes are the result of the efforts of outstanding authors who, despite the exceptional circumstances
related to the COVID- 19 pandemic, have managed to keep to the deadline of the project – although, I must admit, there
were times when I questioned the feasibility of doing this. As COVID-1 9 hit, many of us were faced with unexpected
tasks to solve: Distance teaching, restrictions and changes in administration, and sometimes also rapid modifications to
local procedures at departments and hospitals. Naturally, the combined effect of these interruptions impacted the time
available to dedicate to writing. However, despite these many challenges, we all did our utmost to complete the chapters
according to the deadline.
I would like to thank all authors for their contributions, which made this book possible. You have all done a phe-
nomenal job, especially considering the extraordinary circumstances we are currently faced with, but also considering
the fact that you all have other obligations of high priority. I would especially like to thank Professor Philip Elsinga,
who initially helped me define the content of the radiopharmaceutical section being prepared for Volume III. This sub-
topic of nuclear medicine is the one I have the least knowledge of, and I am therefore very grateful for the kind support
I received during the initial planning of Volume III.
I would like to thank CRC Press officials for entrusting me with the position as editor of this series of books. I would
also like to thank Kirsten Barr, Rebecca Davies, and Francesca McGowan, who have been the points of contact for me
during these years.
It is also important to acknowledge two authors who are sadly no longer with us: Anna Celler, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, and Lennart Johansson, Umeå University, Sweden. Both were dear friends and great
scientists. Throughout the years, their work has made a huge impact in their respective fields of research.
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viii
viii Preface
Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my wife, Karin, as well as to my beloved daughter Johanna, who
lives in Brisbane, where she is pursuing her PhD at the University of Queensland. Karin – I am so grateful for your
patience, especially during the intense period around Christmastime right before the submission of the manuscript for
this volume. I love you both very much.
Michael Ljungberg, PhD
Professor Medical Radiation Physics, Lund
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Access to colour images and support material: http://www.routledge.com/9781138593299
ix
Editor
Michael Ljungberg is a Professor at Medical Radiation Physics, Lund, Lund University, Sweden. He started his
research in the Monte Carlo field in 1983 through a project involving a simulation of whole-body counters but later
changed the focus to more general applications in nuclear medicine imaging and SPECT. Parallel to his development
of the Monte Carlo code, SIMIND, he began working in 1985 with quantitative SPECT and problems related to attenu-
ation and scatter. After earning his PhD in 1990, he received a research assistant position that allowed him to continue
developing SIMIND for quantitative SPECT applications and to establish successful collaborations with international
research groups. At this time, the SIMIND program became used world-wide. Dr. Ljungberg became an associate pro-
fessor in 1994 and, in 2005, after working clinically as a nuclear medicine medical physicist, received a full professor-
ship in the Science Faculty at Lund University. He became the Head of the Department of Medical Radiation Physics
at Lund in 2013 and a full professor in the Medical Faculty in 2015.
Aside from the development of SIMIND – including new camera systems such as CZT detectors – his research
includes an extensive project in oncological nuclear medicine. In this project, he and colleagues developed dosimetry
methods based on quantitative SPECT, Monte Carlo absorbed-dose calculations, and methods for accurate 3D dose
planning for internal radionuclide therapy. Lately, his work has focused on implementing Monte Carlo–based image
reconstruction in SIMIND. He is also involved in the undergraduate education of medical physicists and bio-medical
engineers and supervises MSc and PhD students. In 2012, Professor Ljungberg became a member of the European
Association of Nuclear Medicines task group on Dosimetry and served that association for six years. He has published
over a hundred original papers, 18 conference proceedings, 18 books and book chapters, and 14 peer-reviewed papers.
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