Handbook of imagination and mental simulation

495 Pages·2015·4.985 MB·English

by  Klein, William Martin, Markman, Keith Douglas, Suhr, Julie A

Contents
Overview...........................................................................................................................................vii
List.of.Contributors.........................................................................................................................xvii
Section i the Mental Simulation of Action and Behavior
Chapter 1 Action.Representation.and.Its.Role.in.Social.Interaction.............................................3
Jean Decety and Jennifer A. Stevens
Chapter 2 Expertise.and.the.Mental.Simulation.of.Action..........................................................21
Sian L. Beilock and Ian M. Lyons
Chapter 3 Mental.Imagery.and.Implicit.Memory........................................................................35
Stephen M. Kosslyn and Samuel T. Moulton
Chapter 4 “Thou.Shalt.Not.Make.Unto.Thee.Any.Graven.Image”:.The.Distance.
Dependence.of.Representation....................................................................................53
Elinor Amit, Daniel Algom, Yaacov Trope, and Nira Liberman
Chapter 5 Implementation.Intentions:.The.Mental.Representations.and.Cognitive.
Procedures.of.If-Then.Planning..................................................................................69
Tanya S. Faude-Koivisto, Daniela Wuerz, and Peter M. Gollwitzer
Section ii Mental Simulation and Memory
Chapter 6 False.Memories:.The.Role.of.Plausibility.and.Autobiographical.Belief.....................89
Daniel M. Bernstein, Ryan D. Godfrey, and Elizabeth F. Loftus
Chapter 7 Hypnosis.and.Memory:.From.Bernheim.to.the.Present............................................103
Steven Jay Lynn, Abigail Matthews, and Sean Barnes
Chapter 8 Episodic.Future.Thought:.Remembering.the.Past.to.Imagine.the.Future................119
Karl K. Szpunar and Kathleen B. McDermott
iii
iv Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation
Chapter 9 Temporally.Asymmetric.Constraints.on.Mental.Simulation:.Retrospection.Is.
More.Constrained.Than.Prospection........................................................................131
Leaf Van Boven, Joanne Kane, and A. Peter McGraw
Section iii counterfactual thinking: Simulating the Past
Chapter 10 Cognitive.Processes.in.Counterfactual.Thinking.....................................................151
Ruth M. J. Byrne and Vittorio Girotto
Chapter 11 The.Counterfactual.Mind-Set:.A.Decade.of.Research.............................................161
Elaine M. Wong, Adam D. Galinsky, and Laura J. Kray
Chapter 12 Counterfactual.Thinking:.Function.and.Dysfunction...............................................175
Keith D. Markman, Figen Karadogan, Matthew J. Lindberg, and Ethan Zell
Section iV Alternatives and Alternate Selves
Chapter 13 It’s.Hard.to.Imagine:.Mental.Simulation,.Metacognitive.Experiences,.and.the.
Success.of.Debiasing.................................................................................................197
Lawrence J. Sanna, Norbert Schwarz, and Lindsay A. Kennedy
Chapter 14 Children’s.Imaginary.Companions:.What.Is.It.Like.to.Have.an.Invisible.
Friend?.......................................................................................................................211
Marjorie Taylor, Alison B. Shawber, and Anne M. Mannering
Chapter 15 Daydreaming.and.Fantasizing:.Thought.Flow.and.Motivation................................225
Eric Klinger
Chapter 16 Simulated.Worlds:.Transportation.Into.Narratives...................................................241
Melanie C. Green and John K. Donahue
Section V Perspective taking: Simulating other Minds
Chapter 17 The.Happiness.of.the.Fish:.Evidence.for.a.Common.Theory.of.One’s.Own.and.
Others’.Actions..........................................................................................................257
Rebecca Saxe
Contents v
Chapter 18 Two.Forms.of.Perspective.Taking:.Imagining.How.Another.Feels.and.
Imagining.How.You.Would.Feel...............................................................................267
C. Daniel Batson
Chapter 19 Making.It.Up.and.Making.Do:.Simulation,.Imagination,.and.Empathic.
Accuracy....................................................................................................................281
Michael W. Myers and Sara D. Hodges
Chapter 20 Perspective.Taking:.Misstepping.Into.Others’.Shoes...............................................295
Nicholas Epley and Eugene M. Caruso
Section Vi Simulating and Preparing for the Future
Chapter 21 Imagining.a.Rosy.Future:.The.Psychology.of.Optimism.........................................313
William M. P. Klein and Laura E. Zajac
Chapter 22 On.the.Excessive.Rationality.of.the.Emotional.Imagination:.A.Two-Systems.
Account.of.Affective.Forecasts.and.Experiences.....................................................331
Elizabeth W. Dunn, Noah D. Forrin, and Claire E. Ashton-James
Chapter 23 Subjective.Proximity.of.Future.Selves:.Implications.for.Current.Identity,.
Future.Appraisal,.and.Goal.Pursuit.Motivation........................................................347
Wei Qi Elaine Perunovic and Anne E. Wilson
Chapter 24 Seeing.the.Links.Among.the.Personal.Past,.Present,.and.Future:.How.Imagery.
Perspective.in.Mental.Simulation.Functions.in.Defining.the.Temporally.
Extended.Self............................................................................................................359
Lisa K. Libby and Richard P. Eibach
Chapter 25 Possible.Selves:.From.Content.to.Process.................................................................373
Daphna Oyserman and Leah James
Chapter 26 Mental.Contrasting.of.the.Future.and.Reality.to.Master.Negative.Feedback..........395
Gabriele Oettingen and Andreas Kappes
Chapter 27 On.the.Consequences.of.Mentally.Simulating.Future.Foregone.Outcomes:.
A.Regret.Regulation.Perspective..............................................................................413
Marcel Zeelenberg and Rik Pieters
vi Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation
Chapter 28 Preparedness,.Mental.Simulations,.and.Future.Outlooks.........................................425
Patrick Carroll and James A. Shepperd
Author Index.................................................................................................................................441
Subject Index.................................................................................................................................465
Overview
Keith D. Markman, William M.P. Klein, and Julie A. Suhr
You.hold.in.your.hands.a.collection.of.essays.on.the.topic.of.mental.simulation..Since.the.early.1980s,.
researchers.have.been.examining.fascinating.questions.regarding.the.nature.of.mental.simulation:.
the.act.of.imagination.and.the.generation.of.alternative.realities..Some.researchers.have.focused.on.
what.happens.in.the.brain.when.an.individual.is.mentally.simulating.an.action.or.forming.a.mental.
image,.whereas.others.have.focused.on.the.consequences.of.mental.simulation.processes.for.affect,.
motivation,.and.behavior.
The.purpose.of.gathering.these.essays.is.to.achieve.a.novel.and.stimulating.integration.of.work.
on.imagination.and.mental.simulation.from.a.variety.of.perspectives..It.is.our.hope.that.such.a.mul-
tidisciplinary.volume.will.encourage.an.exchange.of.ideas.that.will.benefit.psychology..Although.a.
number.of.excellent.volumes.have.recently.been.published.that.examine.the.role.of.time.perspective.
in.decision.making.and.social.psychology.more.generally.(e.g..Loewenstein,.Read,.&.Baumeister,.
2003;.Sanna.&.Chang,.2006),.we.have.elected.to.cut.an.even.wider.swath..Thus,.the.present.volume.
includes.chapters.on.mental.representation;.simulated.movement.and.its.relationship.with.actual.
motor.movement;.visual.imagery;.and.how.individuals.use.mental.simulation.to.infer.the.thoughts,.
feelings,.and.intentions.of.others..Our.goal.is.to.forward.the.notion.that.a.wide.range.of.mental.
simulation.phenomena.share.a.commonality.of.underlying.processes..To.so,.we.have.invited.neuro-
scientists,.developmental.psychologists,.cognitive.psychologists,.social.psychologists,.and.clinical.
psychologists.to.unite.under.the.same.umbrella..By.the.end.of.this.book,.it.should.be.clear.that.men-
tal.simulation.is.associated.with.a.multifaceted.but.well-integrated.array.of.biological,.neurological,.
psychological,.and.social.processes.
Before.moving.on.to.a.description.of.the.contents.of.this.volume,.we.would.note.that.this.book.
was.inspired.by.several.seminal.papers.on.mental.simulation,.including.Kahneman.and.Tversky’s.
(1982).initial.propositions.regarding.the.simulation.heuristic;.Taylor,.Pham,.Rivkin,.and.Armor’s.
(1998).article.on.mental.simulation.and.coping;.and.Johnson.and.Sherman’s.(1990).chapter.entitled.
“Constructing.and.Reconstructing.the.Past.and.Future.in.the.Present”.that.appeared.in.Higgins.and.
Sorrentino’s.Handbook of Motivation and Cognition (Volume.2)..We.thank.these.individuals.for.
their.imagination,.creativity,.and.foresight.
The.book.is.organized.into.six.sections.that,.we.believe,.offer.a.cogent.characterization.of.the.
current.state.of.mental.simulation.research.
I. The MenTal SIMulaTIon of acTIon and BehavIor
Section.I.begins.by.describing.some.neurophysiological.and.cognitive.underpinnings.of.motor.
behavior,.empathic.understanding,.planning,.and.intention.formation..In.the.opening.chapter,.
Decety.and.Stevens.(Chapter.1).review.neurophysiological.evidence.indicating.that.actions.are.cen-
trally.represented.in.the.brain,.and.that.these.action.representations.lie.at.the.interface.between.
individuals.and.their.physical.and.social.environments..According.to.Decety.and.Stevens,.simula-
tion.of.movement.precedes.and.plans.for.upcoming.physical.action.and.activates.the.same.cortical.
and.subcortical.structures.that.are.responsible.for.motor.execution..Moreover,.they.argue,.motor.
simulation.provides.a.“gateway.to.human.social.understanding”.by.allowing.the.motor.system.to.
resonate.when.it.perceives.the.actions,.emotions,.and.sensations.of.others..This.capability.of.the.
vii
viii Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation
motor.system.provides.individuals.with.the.primary.means.by.which.individuals.can.understand.
each.other.and.can.therefore.be.considered.a.basic.form.of.intersubjectivity.
Beilock.and.Lyons.(Chapter.2).also.focus.on.the.important.role.of.motor.simulation.in.account-
ing.for.performance.differences.between.experts.and.novices..According.to.the.work.reviewed,.skill.
expertise.is.not.merely.reflected.during.actual.(i.e.,.on-line).unfolding.of.performance.but.is.also.
observable.off-line.in.terms.of.experts’.superior.ability.to.mentally.simulate.skill-relevant.actions..
In.turn,.recent.work.demonstrates.that.individuals.need.not.be.explicitly.attempting.to.act.for.them.
to.call.on.the.motor.systems.used.during.the.actual.execution.of.a.task..Apparently,.skill-level.
differences.also.exist.with.regard.to.this.type.of.covert.action.simulation.during.speech.and.text.
comprehension,.and.such.differences.can.have.an.impact.on.preference.judgments.for.encountered.
objects..In.all,.this.work.suggests.that.the.manner.in.which.experts.mentally.simulate.mastered.
actions.may.be.just.as.important.for.the.study.of.skill.learning.and.performance.as.understanding.
the.on-line.production.of.such.actions.
Kosslyn.and.Moulton.(Chapter.3).continue.to.stress.the.utility.of.motor.simulation.in.their.chap-
ter.about.mental.imagery.and.implicit.memory.(i.e.,.memory.that.cannot.be.voluntarily.called.to.
mind)..Kosslyn.and.Moulton.review.evidence.suggesting.that.imagery.can.be.used.to.access.implicit.
memories.and.describe.how.imagery.can.actually.be.used.to.alter.such.stored.information.(via.
mental.practice),.which.in.turn.can.affect.behavior..In.particular,.these.authors.devote.significant.
attention.to.the.notion.that.imitation.via.observation.of.another’s.actions.(either.real.or.imagined).is.
a.crucial.mechanism.underlying.mental.practice.because.it.bridges.observation.and.action,.and.they.
review.the.neural.bases.of.such.imitative.learning.
Chapters.4.and.5.shift.the.focus.from.the.representation.and.simulation.of.motor.actions.to.the.
implications.of.associative.representations.stored.in.memory.for.mental.simulation.and.subsequent.
behavior..In.Chapter.4,.Amit,.Algom,.Trope,.and.Liberman.note.that.pictures.and.words.have.always.
been.used.as.different.means.of.representation,.and.they.apply.construal-level.theory.(CLT).to.eluci-
date.the.idea.of.a.distance-related.difference.between.pictures.and.words..According.to.CLT,.proximal.
and.distal.events.are.processed.in.a.different.manner,.and.extending.this.idea.to.words.and.pictures,.
Amit.et.al..propose.that.words.typically.serve.to.represent.objects.that.are.distal.in.time,.space,.society,.
or.culture,.whereas.pictures.serve.to.represent.objects.that.are.proximal.along.dimensions.of.distance..
An.important.consequence.of.this.distant-dependent.means.of.representing.words.and.pictures.is.
that.people.tend.to.think.of.recent.events.in.pictures.but.of.more.distant.events.in.words..Moreover,.
because.a.word.is.at.a.higher.level.of.construal.than.is.a.picture,.the.former.is.better.able.to.function.as.
a.conveyor.of.information..Thus,.perhaps.pictures.are.not.necessarily.“worth.a.thousand.words.”
Faude-Koivisto,.Wuerz,.and.Gollwitzer.(Chapter.5).conclude.this.section.by.contrasting.imple-
mentation.intentions.and.mental.simulations.with.regard.to.how.they.function.during.the.plan-
ning.stage.of.goal.pursuit.(see.also.Oettingen.&.Kappes,.Chapter.26)..According.to.the.evidence.
reviewed,.mental.simulation.(a.planning.process.by.which.possible.means.or.paths.to.a.goal.are.
explored).is.associated.with.an.explorative,.open-minded.processing.style,.whereas.implementation.
intention.formation.(a.process.that.leads.to.the.selection.of.a.critical.situation,.which.is.then.linked.
to.a.goal-directed.response).is.associated.with.a.closed-minded.processing.style..Moreover,.the.
differential.activation.levels.of.the.mental.representations.of.implementation.intentions.and.mental.
simulations.underlie.the.distinct.information-processing.modes.that.these.two.self-regulation.tools.
trigger..In.addition,.Faude.et.al..provide.novel.insights.into.the.process.by.which.implementation.
processes.promote.goal.attainment.by.demonstrating.that.the.formation.of.an.implementation.inten-
tion.enhances.the.coactivation.of.the.two.components.that.comprise.such.intentions,.namely,.the.
mental.representation.of.the.anticipated.situation.and.the.goal-directed.behavior.
II. MenTal SIMulaTIon and MeMory
The.chapters.in.Section.II.examine.the.role.of.mental.simulation.in.producing.false.memories.
(Chapters.6.and.7).and.explore.commonalities.and.differences.in.the.processes.that.underlie.indi-
Overview ix
viduals’.ability.to.engage.in.“mental.time.travel”—to.remember.the.past.and.to.imagine.the.future.
(Chapters.8.and.9)..Bernstein,.Godfrey,.and.Loftus.(Chapter.6).review.recent.findings.on.false.
memories.(i.e.,.memories.for.experiences.that.never.occurred).and.propose.several.potential.mecha-
nisms.to.account.for.the.creation.of.false.memories..According.to.Bernstein.et.al.,.the.probability.
that.an.individual.will.come.to.believe.that.an.event.is.generally.plausible.and.that.it.likely.occurred.
in.the.past.depends,.in.part,.on.the.ease.with.which.the.event.is.processed..Moreover,.for.processing.
fluency.to.increase.plausibility.and.autobiographical.belief,.they.hypothesize.that.individuals.must.
be.unaware.of.the.actual.source.of.the.fluency..Thus,.the.creation.of.false.memories.depends.on.
misattributions.of.processing.fluency..Bernstein.et.al..then.describe.the.results.of.studies.employing.
a.“revelation”.paradigm.in.which.individuals.unscramble.key.words.in.the.context.of.remembering.
life.events..Their.data.suggest.that.successfully.unscrambling.life.event-related.anagrams.produces.
an.experiential.“rush”.of.fluency.that.is.misattributed.to.confidence.that.the.related.event.did,.in.
fact,.occur.
Next,.Lynn,.Barnes,.and.Matthews.(Chapter.7).review.the.extant.evidence.regarding.the.use-
fulness.of.hypnosis.as.a.recall-enhancement.procedure.and.conclude.that.hypnosis.often.produces.
false,.yet.believed-in.memories..Lynn.et.al..then.focus.on.mechanisms.that.might.account.for.the.
creation.of.false.memories.via.hypnosis..In.particular,.they.examine.the.role.of.expectancies,.argu-
ing.that.prehypnotic.beliefs.that.hypnosis.facilitates.recall,.as.well.as.suggestions.implying.that.
hypnosis.involves.an.altered.state,.generate.expectancies.that.hypnotic.and.posthypnotic.recall.will.
be.improved..Moreover,.because.individuals.expect.that.hypnosis.will.enhance.the.accuracy.of.their.
memories,.hypnosis.increases.individuals’.motivation.to.search.for.memories.and.to.report.imag-
ined.events.or.guesses.as.real.memories.
In.Chapter.8,.Szpunar.and.McDermott.examine.the.premise.that.recollection.of.the.past.is,.in.
fact,.a.fundamental.component.of.envisioning.the.future..Invoking.the.notion.of.autonoetic.con-
sciousness.initially.forwarded.by.Tulving,.Szpunar.and.McDermott.explain.how.in.simulating.the.
future.individuals.sample.elements.of.remembered.events.to.help.generate.potential.future.sce-
narios..Thus,.episodic.memory.appears.to.be.an.inherently.constructive.system.that.enables.people.
to.simulate.both.their.personal.past.and.future..Empirical.evidence.to.support.this.notion.comes.
from.two.sources..First,.it.has.been.shown.that.personal.past.and.future.thoughts.are.selectively.
impaired.in.populations.known.to.show.deficits.in.episodic.memory.(e.g.,.amnesiacs,.depressives,.
young.children),.and.second,.recent.neurophysiological.data.indicate.that.several.regions.in.the.
brain’s.posterior.cortex.are.similarly.engaged.during.personal.past.and.future.thought..Interestingly,.
however,.Szpunar.and.McDermott.also.note.that.various.additional.brain.regions.consistently.show.
activity.differences.in.favor.of.simulating.the.future.relative.to.remembering.the.past,.and.that.these.
regions.are.the.same.as.those.that.have.been.identified.in.studies.that.require.participants.to.men-
tally.simulate.motor.movements,.harkening.back.to.work.described.by.Decety.and.Stevens.(Chapter.
1),.Beilock.and.Lyons.(Chapter.2),.and.Kosslyn.and.Moulton.(Chapter.3).
Whereas.Szpunar.and.McDermott.(Chapter.8).focus.on.commonalities.between.retrospection.
and.prospection,.Van.Boven,.Kane,.and.McGraw.(Chapter.9).focus.on.their.differences..Van.Boven.
et.al.’s.basic.premise.is.that.past.tense.mental.simulation.(e.g.,.imagining.a.vacation.that.occurred.
2.years.ago).is.more.constrained—more.subject.to.“reality.checks”—than.is.future.tense.mental.
simulation.(e.g.,.imagining.a.vacation.occurring.2.years.in.the.future),.and.that.the.greater.con-
straints.on.retrospection.than.prospection.reflect.a.general.temporal.asymmetry.in.retrospection.
and.prospection..The.judgmental.implications.of.such.a.temporal.asymmetry.are.numerous..For.
instance,.Van.Boven.et.al..present.evidence.indicating.that.mental.simulation.in.the.past.tense.feels.
less.imaginative.and.more.difficult.than.mental.simulation.in.the.future.tense..Moreover,.individu-
als’.mental.representations.of.past.events.tend.to.be.more.concrete.than.their.mental.representations.
of.the.future.(see.Amit.et.al.,.Chapter.4),.people.think.about.emotional.events.in.the.past.in.a.less-
extreme.fashion.compared.with.their.thoughts.about.emotional.events.in.the.future,.and.they.tend.
to.have.more.optimistic.views.about.their.futures.compared.with.more.realistic.and.mixed.views.
about.their.pasts..In.all,.Van.Boven.et.al..argue.that.temporally.asymmetric.constraints.in.imagining.
x Handbook of Imagination and Mental Simulation
hypothetical.and.real.events.are.important.to.consider.if.one.is.interested.in.achieving.a.more.accu-
rate.understanding.of.mental.simulation.in.everyday.life.
III. counTerfacTual ThInkIng: SIMulaTIng The PaST
The.chapters.in.this.section.explore.antecedents.to.and.consequences.of.counterfactual.thinking—
the.consideration.of.alternative.past.possibilities..Although.several.other.chapters.in.this.volume.
make.contact.with.the.counterfactual.thinking.literature.(Chapters.9,.13,.26,.27,.and.28),.the.three.
that.appear.in.this.section.are.completely.devoted.to.expanding.our.understanding.of.counterfactu-
als..Byrne.and.Girotto.(Chapter.10).describe.the.effects.of.context.on.(a).the.inferences.that.indi-
viduals.tend.to.draw.from.counterfactual.conditionals.and.(b).the.sorts.of.features.that.individuals.
focus.on.when.they.simulate.counterfactual.alternatives..With.regard.to.the.first,.Byrne.and.Girotto.
demonstrate.how.knowledge.of.the.facts.(i.e.,.known.facts.vs..presupposed.facts).affects.the.infer-
ences.that.individuals.are.willing.to.make.when.they.reason.about.counterfactual.possibilities,.and.
with.regard.to.the.second,.they.describe.recent.empirical.evidence.indicating.that.an.individuals’.
role—reader.of.a.hypothetical.series.of.events.versus.actor.actually.experiencing.those.events—can.
differentially.affect.the.construction.of.counterfactual.alternatives..Specifically,.readers.tend.to.
focus.on.a.protagonist’s.controllable.actions,.such.as.choices,.whereas.actors,.who.have.more.infor-
mation.available.to.them.regarding.the.features.of.a.problem-solving.phase,.are.consequently.more.
likely.to.generate.counterfactuals.that.focus.on.problem.features.
Chapters.11.and.12.both.examine.the.influence.of.counterfactual.thinking.on.creativity,.prob-
lem.solving,.emotion,.and.motivation,.but.they.do.so.in.different.ways..Wong,.Galinsky,.and.Kray.
(Chapter.11).focus.on.how.counterfactual.thinking.has.an.impact.on.subsequent.task.performance.
by.instantiating.a.“mindset,”.or.process.of.thought.that.tunes.information.processing,.attention,.and.
thought.production..The.initial.work.described.by.Wong.et.al..uses.a.counterfactual.priming.proce-
dure.to.instantiate.a.mindset.that.elicits.a.relational.processing.style—“a.structured.form.of.thought.
involving.a.consideration.of.relationships.and.the.associations.between.a.set.of.stimuli”.(Wong.et.
al.,.p..168)..Priming.this.mindset.has.the.effect.of.enhancing.decision-making.accuracy.and.perfor-
mance.on.creative.association.tasks..Next,.Wong.et.al..describe.how.the.relational.processing.style.
is.more.likely.activated.by.generating.subtractive.counterfactuals.(i.e.,.those.that.remove.antecedent.
elements.when.reconstructing.reality),.whereas.generating.additive.counterfactuals.(i.e.,.those.that.
add.antecedent.elements.to.reconstruct.reality).tend.to.activate.an.expansive.processing.style.that.
broadens.conceptual.attention..In.support,.the.authors.present.empirical.evidence.indicating.that.
additive.counterfactual.thinking.mindsets.enhance.performance.on.idea-generation.tasks,.whereas.
subtractive.counterfactual.mindsets.enhance.performance.on.association.tasks.
In.contrast.to.Wong.et.al.’s.(Chapter.11).focus.on.process.activation.via.counterfactual.thought,.
Markman,.Karadogan,.Lindberg,.and.Zell.(Chapter.12).examine.how.counterfactual.thought.con-
tent.has.emotional,.motivational,.and.behavioral.consequences.for.the.individual..The.first.part.of.
Markman.et.al.’s.chapter.focuses.on.the.functional.benefits.of.counterfactual.thinking.as.specified.
by.the.reflection.and.evaluation.model.(REM)..According.to.the.REM,.the.emotional.and.motiva-
tional.effects.of.counterfactual.thinking.occur.via.an.interaction.between.counterfactual.direction.
(upward.vs..downward).and.counterfactual.processing.mode.(reflective.vs..evaluative)..Counterfac-
tuals.that.elicit.negative.affect.are.more.likely.to.have.preparative.and.motivational.value,.whereas.
counterfactuals.that.elicit.positive.affect.are.more.likely.to.reap.emotional.benefits..In.turn,.the.
motivational.effects.of.counterfactuals.are.moderated.by.the.regulatory.fit.between.the.counterfac-
tual.and.contextually.salient.goal.means..Markman.et.al..then.shift.their.focus.to.considering.some.
dysfunctional.implications.of.counterfactuals,.including.the.role.of.upward.counterfactuals.in.elicit-
ing.self-blame,.the.possibility.that.downward.counterfactuals.can.lower.personal.standards.of.moral.
and.ethical.conduct,.and.the.self-defeating.and.ruminative.consequences.of.upward.counterfactual.
thinking.in.nonrepeatable.situations.and.for.individuals.who.are.depressed.and.state.oriented.
Overview xi
Iv. alTernaTIveS and alTernaTe SelveS
The.chapters.in.Section.IV.examine.the.judgmental.implications.of.considering.alternative.out-
comes.and.explore.the.phenomenology.and.motivational.consequences.of.simulating.alternate.
selves..Sanna,.Schwarz,.and.Kennedy.(Chapter.13).lead.off.the.section.by.proposing.and.describing.
evidence.for.a.general.model.of.judgmental.biasing.and.debiasing..According.to.Sanna.et.al.,.the.
production.and.reduction.of.judgmental.biases.are.a.function.of.the.joint.influence.of.accessible.
thought.content.and.accompanying.metacognitive.experiences..As.a.default,.individuals.consider.
their.metacognitive.experiences.relevant.to.what.they.are.thinking.about.and.thus.draw.on.such.
experiences.as.a.source.of.information.that.qualifies.the.implications.of.accessible.thought.content..
Thus,.focal.thoughts.give.rise.to.bias.when.they.are.easy.to.bring.to.mind.(see.also.Bernstein.et.al.,.
Chapter.6).but.attenuate.bias.when.they.are.difficult.to.bring.to.mind..Conversely,.thoughts.about.
alternatives.attenuate.bias.when.they.come.to.mind.easily.but.increase.bias.when.they.are.difficult.
to.bring.to.mind..More.generally,.what.individuals.conclude.from.their.metacognitive.experiences.
depends.on.the.nature.of.the.experience.and.the.particular.naive.theory.of.mental.processes.that.
is.applied..However,.if.the.informational.value.of.the.metacognitive.experience.to.the.judgment.at.
hand.is.discredited,.judgments.will.instead.be.solely.based.on.accessible.declarative.information..
Sanna.et.al..apply.their.model.to.a.range.of.judgmental.phenomena,.including.the.hindsight.bias,.
temporal.confidence.shifts,.the.planning.fallacy,.and.the.impact.bias.
Chapters.14–16.focus.on.the.phenomenology.and.motivational.effects.of.imagining.alternate.
selves..Taylor,.Shawber,.and.Mannering.(Chapter.14).examine.the.phenomenon.of.imaginary.com-
panion.creation.by.young.children,.describing.the.typical.features.of.an.imaginary.friend.and.
exploring.whether.invisible.friends.are.experienced.as.extensions.of.the.self.or.as.autonomous.
agents..In.addition,.Taylor.et.al..cite.empirical.evidence.suggesting.that.children.develop.personal.
relationships.with.their.imaginary.companions.and.posit.that.invisible.friends.provide.a.vehicle.for.
communicating.narratives..Despite.children’s.detailed.descriptions.and.emotional.attachments.to.
their.invisible.friends,.however,.the.vast.majority.of.them.appear.to.understand.that.invisible.friends.
are.pretend.
Klinger’s.chapter.(Chapter.15).examines.daydreaming,.which.he.defines.as.nonworking.thought.
that.is.either.spontaneous.or.fanciful..After.establishing.some.basic.properties.of.daydreams.(e.g.,.
dimensions.of.thought.flow,.duration.of.thought.segments,.proportion.of.thoughts.that.are.day-
dreams),.Klinger.describes.the.critical.role.played.by.goals.and.current.concerns.in.determining.
daydream.content..According.to.Klinger,.a.current.concern.(i.e..having.a.goal).sensitizes.an.indi-
vidual.to.respond.to.cues.associated.with.goal.pursuit,.and.for.this.reason.goal-related.cues.are.pro-
cessed.automatically,.receive.priority.in.processing,.and.are.reflected.in.daydream.content..Klinger.
also.advances.the.proposition.that.daydreaming.is.a.mental.default,.a.notion.that.is.supported.by.
recent.neurophysiological.evidence.indicating.that.mindwandering.entails.activity.in.neural.path-
ways.that.are.known.to.be.associated.with.the.resting.mind..Speculating.on.the.evolutionary.advan-
tage.of.a.default.state.of.mental.rest.that.spontaneously.processes.goal.pursuits,.Klinger.suggests.
that.(a).while.a.person.is.occupied.with.one.task,.such.a.system.reminds.the.individual.of.their.larger.
agenda;.(b).the.system.provides.opportunities.for.spontaneous.problem.solving;.(c).daydreams.serve.
as.a.form.of.mental.rehearsal;.and.(d).daydreams.act.as.a.form.of.review.of.past.behavior.that.can.
help.individuals.gain.insights.that.might.improve.their.future.performance.
To.conclude.the.section,.Green.and.Donahue.(Chapter.16).describe.a.psychological.theory.of.
transportation.into.narrative.worlds.that.suggests.that.becoming.immersed.in.a.story.can.have.
powerful.emotional.and.persuasive.consequences..According.to.Green.and.Donahue,.during.trans-
portation,.readers’.imaginative.resources.have.them.feeling.removed.from.their.surroundings.and.
completely.engaged.in.the.world.created.by.the.author..After.outlining.how.transportation.is.related.
to.and.distinct.from.other.forms.of.mental.simulation,.the.authors.focus.on.some.of.the.psychologi-
cal.processes.underlying.the.transportation.experience..For.instance,.transportation.appears.to.link.
vivid.images.with.beliefs.implied.by.the.story.and.thereby.increase.the.story’s.persuasive.power..