Table Of Content

Food Engineering Series Series Editor: Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas George Saravacos Athanasios E. Kostaropoulos Handbook of Food Processing Equipment Second Edition Food Engineering Series SeriesEditor GustavoV.Barbosa-Ca´novas,WashingtonStateUniversity,USA AdvisoryBoard Jose´ MiguelAguilera,CatholicUniversity,Chile KezbanCando(cid:2)gan,AnkaraUniversity,Turkey RichardW.Hartel,UniversityofWisconsin,USA AlbertIbarz,UniversityofLleida,Spain JozefKokini,PurdueUniversity,USA MichaelMcCarthy,UniversityofCalifornia,USA KeshavanNiranjan,UniversityofReading,UnitedKingdom MichaPeleg,UniversityofMassachusetts,USA ShafiurRahman,SultanQaboosUniversity,Oman M.AnandhaRao,CornellUniversity,USA Yrj€oRoos,UniversityCollegeCork,Ireland JorgeWelti-Chanes,MonterreyInstituteofTechnology,Mexico. Springer’sFoodEngineeringSeriesisessentialtotheFoodEngineeringprofession, providing exceptional texts in areas that are necessary for the understanding and development of this constantly evolving discipline. The titles are primarily reference-oriented, targeted to a wide audience including food, mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineers, as well as food scientists and technologists working in the food industry, academia, regulatory industry, or in the design of foodmanufacturingplantsorspecializedequipment. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5996 George Saravacos • Athanasios E. Kostaropoulos Handbook of Food Processing Equipment Second Edition GeorgeSaravacos AthanasiosE.Kostaropoulos 21100Nauplion,Greece Athens,Greece ISSN1571-0297 FoodEngineeringSeries ISBN978-3-319-25018-2 ISBN978-3-319-25020-5 (eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-25020-5 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015952650 SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon ©SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2016 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexempt fromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthis book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade. Printedonacid-freepaper Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Contents 1 DesignofFoodProcessesandFoodProcessingPlants. . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 OverviewofChemicalProcessandPlantDesign. . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2.1 ProcessFlowSheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2.2 TypesofProcessDesigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2.3 MaterialandEnergyBalances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2.4 DesignofEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2.5 PlantLayoutandBuildings.. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. 6 1.2.6 EconomicAnalysisinProcess/PlantDesign. . . . . . . . 7 1.2.7 ManufacturingCostandProfitability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2.8 Computer-AidedProcess/PlantDesign. . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.3 DesignofFoodProcesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.3.1 UnitOperationsinFoodProcessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.3.2 FoodProcessFlowSheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.3.3 MaterialandEnergyBalances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.3.4 Computer-AidedFoodProcessDesign. . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.4 FoodPlantDesign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.4.1 ElementsofFoodPlantDesign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.4.2 GoodManufacturingPractices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1.4.3 FoodPlantEconomics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2 DesignandSelectionofFoodProcessingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . 51 2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 2.2 SizingandCostingofEquipment. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. 52 2.3 MaterialsofConstruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.3.1 Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.3.2 Plastics–Rubber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.3.3 Glass–Ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 2.3.4 Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 v vi Contents 2.4 FabricationofEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.4.1 StrengthofConstruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 61 2.4.2 FabricationandInstallationofEquipment. . . . . . . . . . 64 2.5 HygienicDesignofFoodProcessingEquipment. . . . . .. . . . .. 66 2.5.1 HygienicStandardsandRegulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.5.2 CleaningofFoodEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.6 SelectionofFoodProcessingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 2.6.1 SelectionofEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 2.6.2 TestingofEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2.6.3 EquipmentSpecifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.7 DirectoriesofEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.7.1 DirectoriesofFoodEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.7.2 ExhibitionsofFoodEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3 MechanicalTransportandStorageEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.2 MechanicalTransportEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 3.2.1 FluidFoodTransportEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 3.2.2 PneumaticandHydraulicTransportEquipment. . . . . . 108 3.2.3 MechanicalConveyors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 3.3 FoodStorageEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.3.2 StorageofSolids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.3.3 StorageofLiquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 4 MechanicalProcessingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.2 SizeReduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.2.2 Cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 4.2.3 CrushingandGrindingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 4.3 SizeEnlargement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 4.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 4.3.2 AgglomerationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 4.3.3 SelectionofAgglomerationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . 207 4.4 Homogenization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 4.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 4.4.2 HomogenizationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 4.5 MixingandFormingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 4.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 4.5.2 FluidMixingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 4.5.3 PasteandDoughMixingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Contents vii 4.5.4 ExtrusionandFormingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 4.5.5 ButterandCheeseProcessingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . 226 4.5.6 SolidMixingandEncrustingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . 227 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 5 MechanicalSeparationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 5.2 ClassificationOperations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 5.2.1 Grading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 5.2.2 Sorting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 5.3 Solid/SolidSeparations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 5.3.1 Screening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 5.3.2 FluidClassification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 5.4 Solid/LiquidSeparators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 5.4.1 Screens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 5.4.2 SedimentationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 5.4.3 IndustrialFilters.. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. 252 5.4.4 Centrifuges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 5.4.5 MechanicalExpression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 263 5.5 Solid/AirSeparators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 5.5.1 CycloneSeparators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 5.5.2 BagFilters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 272 5.5.3 AirFilters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 5.5.4 ElectricalFilters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 5.5.5 WetScrubbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5.6 RemovalofFood-RelatedParts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5.6.1 GeneralAspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5.6.2 RemovalofUndesiredOwnParts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 5.6.3 RemovalofDesiredParts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 5.6.4 FoodCleaningOperations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 6 HeatTransferEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 6.2 HeatTransferCoefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 6.3 EmpiricalCorrelationsof(h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 6.3.1 GeneralCorrelations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 6.3.2 SimplifiedEquationsforAirandWater. . . . . . . . . . . . 298 6.3.3 HeatTransferFactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 6.4 HeatExchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.4.1 OverallHeatTransferCoefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.4.2 FoulingofHeatExchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 6.4.3 ResidenceTimeDistribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 6.4.4 TubularHeatExchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 6.4.5 PlateHeatExchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 viii Contents 6.4.6 AgitatedKettles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 6.4.7 ScrapedSurfaceHeatExchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 6.4.8 DirectHeatExchangers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 6.4.9 BakingandRoastingOvens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 6.4.10 Fryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 6.4.11 RadiationHeaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 6.4.12 HeatGenerationProcesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 6.4.13 HygienicConsiderations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 324 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 7 FoodEvaporationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 7.2 HeatTransferinEvaporation. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 332 7.2.1 PhysicalProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 7.2.2 HeatTransferCoefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 7.2.3 FoulinginEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 7.2.4 HeatTransferinFilmEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 7.2.5 FallingFilmEvaporationofFruitJuices. . . . . . . . . . . 338 7.3 FoodQualityConsiderations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 7.4 FoodEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 7.4.1 MaterialandEnergyBalances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 7.4.2 LongResidence-TimeEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 7.4.3 ShortResidence-TimeEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 7.5 Energy-SavingEvaporationSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 7.5.1 Multiple-EffectEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 7.5.2 VaporRecompressionEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 7.5.3 HeatPumpEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 7.5.4 CombinedReverseOsmosis/Evaporation. . . . . . . . . . 355 7.5.5 WaterDesalination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 7.5.6 Waste-HeatEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 7.6 EvaporatorComponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 7.6.1 EvaporatorBodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 7.6.2 Vapor/LiquidSeparators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 357 7.6.3 Condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 7.6.4 VacuumSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 7.6.5 EvaporatorControl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 7.6.6 TestingofEvaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 7.6.7 HygienicConsiderations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 361 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 8 FoodDehydrationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 8.2 PrinciplesofDrying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 8.2.1 PsychrometricCalculations. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. 368 8.2.2 DryingRates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 8.2.3 FoodDehydrationTechnology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Contents ix 8.3 DesignandSelectionofFoodDryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 8.3.1 HeatandMassTransfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 8.3.2 ModelingandSimulationofDryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 8.3.3 DesignofIndustrialDryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 381 8.3.4 SelectionofIndustrialDryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 8.3.5 CommercialFoodDryingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 8.3.6 SpecialFoodDryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 8.3.7 HygienicandSafetyConsiderations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 8.4 EnergyandCostConsiderationsofDrying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 8.4.1 HeatSourcesforDrying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 8.4.2 HeatRecovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 8.4.3 Energy-EfficientDryers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 8.4.4 CostConsiderations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 9 RefrigerationandFreezingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 9.2 RefrigerationEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 9.2.1 RefrigerationCycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 9.2.2 Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 9.2.3 Evaporators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 9.2.4 Condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 9.2.5 CapacityControl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 9.3 Refrigerants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 9.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 9.3.2 NaturalRefrigerants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 9.3.3 FluorocarbonandBlendRefrigerants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 9.4 Lubricants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 9.4.1 MainTypesofLubricants. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . 455 9.4.2 FunctionofLubrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 9.4.3 RequirementsforGoodLubrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 9.4.4 ChoiceofRefrigerantLubricants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 9.4.5 Additives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 9.5 CoolingofFoods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 9.5.1 Chilling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 9.5.2 CoolingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 9.6 FreezingofFood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 9.6.1 Freezing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 9.6.2 FreezingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 9.6.3 ThawingEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 9.7 ColdStorage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 9.7.1 GeneralAspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 9.7.2 ReductionofWeightLoss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 9.8 IceManufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

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