Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Series)

1510 Pages·2007·25.79 MB·English

by  D. Yogi Goswami

A1
The International
System of Units,
Fundamental
Constants, and
Conversion Factors
Nitin Goel
IntelTechnologyIndiaPvt.Ltd.
TheInternationalsystemofunits(SI)isbasedonsevenbaseunits.Otherderivedunitscanberelatedto
thesebaseunitsthroughgoverningequations.Thebaseunitswiththerecommendedsymbolsarelisted
inTableA1.1.DerivedunitsofinterestinsolarengineeringaregiveninTableA1.2.
Standardprefixes canbe usedintheSIsystem to designatemultiples ofthebasicunits and thereby
conservespace.ThestandardprefixesarelistedinTableA1.3.
Table A1.4 lists some physical constants that arefrequently used in solarengineering, together with
theirvaluesintheSIsystemofunits.
Conversion factors between the SI and English systems for commonly used quantities are given in
TableA1.5.
A1-1
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A1-2 HandbookofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
TABLEA1.1 TheSevenSIBaseUnits
Quantity NameofUnit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electriccurrent Ampere A
Thermodynamictemperature Kelvin K
Luminousintensity Candela cd
Amountofasubstance Mole mol
TABLEA1.2 SIDerivedUnits
Quantity NameofUnit Symbol
Acceleration Meterspersecondsquared m/s2
Area Squaremeters m2
Density Kilogrampercubicmeter kg/m3
Dynamicviscosity Newton-secondpersquaremeter Ns/m2
Force Newton(Z1kgm/s2) N
Frequency Hertz Hz
Kinematicviscosity Squaremeterpersecond m2/s
Planeangle Radian rad
Potentialdifference Volt V
Power Watt(Z1J/s) W
Pressure Pascal(Z1N/m2) Pa
Radiantintensity Wattspersteradian W/sr
Solidangle Steradian sr
Specificheat Joulesperkilogram–Kelvin J/kgK
Thermalconductivity Wattspermeter–Kelvin W/mK
Velocity Meterspersecond m/s
Volume Cubicmeter m3
Work,energy,heat Joule(Z1N/m) J
TABLEA1.3 EnglishPrefixes
Multiplier Symbol Prefix Multiplier MultiplierSymbol
1012 T Tera 103 M(thousand)
109 G Giga 106 MM(million)
106 m Mega
103 k Kilo
102 h Hecto
101 da Deka
10K1 d Deci
10K2 c Centi
10K3 m Milli
10K6 m Micro
10K9 n Nano
10K12 p Pico
10K15 f Femto
10K18 a Atto
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TheInternationalSystemofUnits,FundamentalConstants,andConversionFactors A1-3
TABLEA1.4 PhysicalConstantsinSIUnits
Quantity Symbol Value
Avogadroconstant N 6.022169!1026kmolK1
Boltzmannconstant k 1.380622!10K23J/K
Firstradiationconstant CZ2phC2 3.741844!10K16Wm2
1
Gasconstant R 8.31434!103J/kmolK
Planckconstant h 6.626196!10K34Js
Secondradiationconstant CZhc/k 1.438833!10K2mK
2
Speedoflightinavacuum C 2.997925!108m/s
Stefan–Boltzmannconstant s 5.66961!10K8W/m2K4
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A1-4 HandbookofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
TABLEA1.5 ConversionFactors
PhysicalQuantity Symbol ConversionFactor
Area A 1ft.2Z0.0929m2
1acreZ43,560ft.2Z4047m2
1hectareZ10,000m2
1squaremileZ640acres
Density r 1lb /ft.3Z16.018kg/m3
m
Heat,energy,orwork QorW lBtuZ1055.1J
1kWhZ3.6MJ
1ThermZ105.506MJ
lcalZ4.186J
1ft.lbZ1.3558J
f
Force F 1lbZ4.448N
f
Heatflowrate,refrigeration q 1Btu/hZ0.2931W
1ton(refrigeration)Z3.517kW
lBtu/sZ1055.1W
Heatflux q/A 1Btu/hft.2Z3.1525W/m2
Heat-transfercoefficient h 1Btu/hft.2FZ5.678W/m2K
Length L 1ft.Z0.3048m
1in.Z2.54cm
1miZ1.6093km
Mass m 1lb Z0.4536kg
m
1tonZ2240lbm
1tonne(metric)Z1000kg
Massflowrate m_ 1lb /hZ0.000126kg/s
m
Power W_ 1hpZ745.7W
1kWZ3415Btu/h
1ft.lb/sZ1.3558W
f
1Btu/hZ0.293W
Pressure p 1lb/in.2(psi)Z6894.8Pa(N/m2)
f
1in.HgZ3,386Pa
1atmZ101,325Pa(N/m2)Z14.696psi
Radiation l 1langleyZ41,860J/m2
1langley/minZ697.4W/m2
Specificheatcapacity c 1Btu/lb 8FZ4187J/kgK
m
Internalenergyorenthalpy eorh 1Btu/lb Z2326.0J/kg
m
1cal/gZ4184J/kg
Temperature T T(8R)Z(9/5)T(K)
T(8F)Z[T(8C)](9/5)C32
T(8F)Z[T(K)K273.15](9/5)C32
Thermalconductivity k 1Btu/hft.8FZ1.731W/mK
Thermalresistance R 1h8F/BtuZ1.8958K/W
th
Velocity V 1ft./sZ0.3048m/s
1mi/hZ0.44703m/s
Viscosity,dynamic m 1lb /ft.sZ1.488Ns/m2
m
1cPZ0.00100Ns/m2
Viscosity,kinematic n 1ft.2/sZ0.09029m2/s
1ft.2/hZ2.581!10K5m2/s
Volume V 1ft.3Z0.02832m3Z28.32L
1barrelZ42gal(U.S.)
1gal(U.S.liq.)Z3.785L
1gal(U.K.)Z4.546L
Volumetricflowrate Q_ 1ft.3/min(cfia)Z0.000472m3/s
1gal/min(GPM)Z0.0631l/s
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A2
Solar Radiation Data
Nitin Goel
IntelTechnologyIndiaPvt.Ltd.
A2-1
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A2-2 HandbookofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
FIGUREA2.1 Descriptionofmethodforcalculatingtruesolartime,togetherwithaccompanyingmeteorological
charts, for computing solar-altitude and azimuth angles, (a) Description of method; (b) chart, 258N latitude;
(c)chart,308Nlatitude;(d)chart,358Nlatitude;(e)chart,408Nlatitude;(f)chart,458Nlatitude;(g)chart,508N
latitude.Descriptionandchartsreproducedfromthe“SmithsonianMeteorologicalTables”withpermissionfromthe
SmithsonianInstitute,Washington,D.C.
q2007byTaylor&FrancisGroup,LLC
SolarRadiationData A2-3
350 North 10
340 0 20
330 30
10
NW 320 20 40 NE
310 50
30
300 40 60
290 6 p.m. 5600 6 a.m. 70
We2s8t0 5 p.m.S4 p.mO.3 pL.m.2A p.m.R1 p.m. No78o00n 11 a.m.10 a.+mT2+3.2.2097° I°a.mM.8 a.mE.7 a.m. 8E0ast
80 +15°
260 70 +1+05°° 100
0°
60
250 −5° 110
50 −10°
−15°
240 40 −20° 120
−23.27°
230 30 130
Decli-
SW 220 20 140 SE nation Approx. dates
+23° 27° June 22
210 10 150 +20° May 21, July 24
+15° May 1, Aug. 13
(b) 200 190 Sou0th 170 160 ++1 05°° AApprr.. 136, ,S Aeupgt. . 1208
0° Mar. 21, Sept. 23
350 North 10 − 5° Mar. 8, Oct. 6
340 0 20 − 10° Feb. 23, Oct. 20
330 30 − 15° Feb. 9, Nov. 3
10 − 20° Jan. 21, Nov. 22
NW 320 20 40 NE − 23° 27° Dec. 22
310 50
30
300 40 60
50
290 6 p.m. 60 6 a.m. 70
We2s8t0 5 p.m.4S p.mO.3 p.Lm.2A p.m.R1 p.m. No788o000n 11 a.m.10 a+.T2m+3+2..120597°° °Ia.m.M8 a.Em.7 a.m. 8E0ast
260 70 +1+05°° 100
0°
250 60 −5° 110
50 −10°
−15°
240 40 −20° 120
−23.27°
230 30 130
SW 220 20 140 SE
10
210 150
200 0 160
(c) 190 South 170
FIGUREA2.1 (continued)
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A2-4 HandbookofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
350 North 10
340 0 20
330 30
10
320 40
NW 20 NE
310 50
30
3007 p.m. 4500 5 a.m.60
290 6 p.m. 60 6 a.m. 70
We22s68t00 5 p.m.S4 p.mO. 3 pL.m.2A p.m.R1 p.m.No787o000n 11 a.m.10 a+.T2m+3+2.+.120195°70 I°°a°.m.M8 a.mE.7 a.m. 18E00a0st
+5°
60 0°
250 110
−5°
50 −10°
240 −15° 120
40 −20°
−23.27°
230 30 130
SW 220 20 140SE Dnaetciolin- Approx. dates
210 10 150 ++2203°° 27° JMuanye 2 212, July 24
200 0 160 +15° May 1, Aug. 13
(d) 190 South 170 +10° Apr. 16, Aug. 28
+ 5° Apr. 3, Sept. 10
350 North 10 0° Mar. 21, Sept. 23
340 0 20 − 5° Mar. 8, Oct. 6
330 30 − 10° Feb. 23, Oct. 20
10 − 15° Feb. 9, Nov. 3
NW 320 20 40 NE −− 2230°° 27° JDaenc.. 2212, Nov. 22
310 50
30
300 7 40 m. 60
p.m 50 5 a.
.
290 6 p.m. 60 6 a.m. 70
We22s68t00 5 p.m.4S p.m.O3 p.mL. 2 Ap.m.1R p.m. No7887o0000n11 a.m.10 a.mT+2.+3+2.9210 7I5°a°°.m.M8 a.Em. 7 a.m. 18E00a0st
+10°
60 +5°
250 0° 110
50 −5°
240 40 −−1105°° 120
−20°
230 30 −23.27° 130
SW 220 20 140 SE
10
210 150
200 0 160
(e) 190 South 170
FIGUREA2.1 (continued)
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SolarRadiationData A2-5
350 North 10
340 0 20
330 30
10
320 40
NW 20 NE
310 50
30
300 40 60
m.
290 7 p.m. 5600 m.5 a. 70
280 6 p.m. 70 m.6 a. 80
5 p.S 80 E 7 a.
We2s6t0 m.4 p.mO.3 pL.m.2A p.m.1R p.m. N8o0on 11 a.m.10 aT.+m2+.3+2.1209I 57°a°°.m.M8 a.m. 1E0a0st
60 +10°
250 +5° 110
50 0°
240 40 −−150°° 120
−15°
230 30 −20° 130
−23.27°
SW 20 SE Decli-
220 140 nation Approx. dates
10 +23° 27° June 22
210 150 +20° May 21, July 24
200 0 160 +15° May 1, Aug. 13
(f) 190 South 170 +10° Apr. 16, Aug. 28
+ 5° Apr. 3, Sept. 10
0° Mar. 21, Sept. 23
350 North 10
340 0 20 − 5° Mar. 8, Oct. 6
330 30 − 10° Feb. 23, Oct. 20
10 − 15° Feb. 9, Nov. 3
320 40 − 20° Jan. 21, Nov. 22
NW 20 NE − 23° 27° Dec. 22
310 50
300 .m.p 8 3400 .m.a 4 60
m.
290 7 p.m 50 5 a. 70
. 60 m.
280 6 p.m. 70 m.6 a. 80
5 p. S 80 E 7 a.
We2s62t050 m.4 p.m.O3 p.Lm.2A p.m.R1 p.m.N876o000on 11 a.m. 10T a.+m2.+3I+2.9+2 1017a5°.0°°mM°. 8 a.m. 1110E0a0st
50 +5°
0°
240 40 −5° 120
−10°
230 30 −−1250°° 130
SW 220 20 −23.27° 140 SE
10
210 150
200 0 160
(g) 190 South 170
FIGUREA2.1 (continued)
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A2-6 HandbookofEnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergy
TABLEA2.1 SolarIrradianceforDifferentAirMasses
Wavelength AirMass;aZ0.66;bZ0.085a
0 1 4 7 10
0.290 482.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.295 584.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.300 514.0 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.305 603.0 11.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.310 689.0 30.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.315 764.0 79.4 0.1 0.0 0.0
0.320 830.0 202.6 2.9 0.0 0.0
0.325 975.0 269.5 5.7 0.1 0.0
0.330 1059.0 331.6 10.2 0.3 0.0
0.335 1081.0 383.4 17.1 0.8 0.0
0.340 1074.0 431.3 24.9 1.8 0.1
0.345 1069.0 449.2 33.3 2.5 0.2
0.350 1093.0 480.5 40.8 3.5 0.3
0.355 1083.0 498.0 48.4 4.7 0.5
0.360 1068.0 513.7 57.2 6.4 0.7
0.365 1132.0 561.3 68.4 8.3 1.0
0.370 1181.0 603.5 80.5 10.7 1.4
0.375 1157.0 609.4 89.0 13.0 1.9
0.380 1120.0 608.0 97.2 15.6 2.5
0.385 1098.0 609.8 104.5 17.9 3.1
0.390 1098.0 623.9 114.5 21.0 3.9
0.395 1189.0 691.2 135.8 26.7 5.2
0.400 1429.0 849.9 178.8 37.6 7.9
0.405 1644.0 992.8 218.7 48.2 10.6
0.410 1751.0 1073.7 247.5 57.1 13.2
0.415 1774.0 1104.5 266.5 64.3 15.5
0.420 1747.0 1104.3 278.9 70.4 17.8
0.425 1693.0 1086.5 287.2 78.9 20.1
0.430 1639.0 1067.9 295.4 81.7 22.6
0.435 1663.0 1100.1 318.4 92.2 26.7
0.440 1810.0 1215.5 368.2 111.5 33.8
0.445 1922.0 1310.4 415.3 131.6 41.7
0.450 2006.0 1388.4 460.3 152.6 50.6
0.455 2057.0 1434.8 486.9 165.2 56.1
0.460 2066.0 1452.2 504.4 175.2 60.8
0.465 2048.0 1450.7 515.7 183.3 65.1
0.470 2033.0 1451.2 527.9 192.0 69.8
0.475 2044.0 1470.3 547.3 203.7 75.8
0.480 2074.0 1503.4 572.6 218.1 83.1
0.485 1976.0 1443.3 562.4 219.2 85.4
0.490 1950.0 1435.2 572.2 228.2 91.0
0.495 1960.0 1453.6 592.9 241.9 98.7
0.500 1942.0 1451.2 605.6 252.7 105.5
0.505 1920.0 1440.1 607.6 256.4 108.2
0.510 1882.0 1416.8 604.4 257.8 110.0
0.515 1833.0 1384.9 597.3 257.6 111.1
0.520 1833.0 1390.0 606.1 264.3 115.2
0.525 1852.0 1409.5 621.3 273.9 120.7
0.530 1842.0 1406.9 626.9 279.4 124.5
0.535 1818.0 1393.6 627.7 282.8 127.4
0.540 1783.0 1371.7 624.5 284.4 129.5
0.545 1754.0 1354.2 623.2 286.8 132.0
0.550 1725.0 1336.6 621.7 289.2 134.5
0.555 1720.0 1335.7 625.5 293.0 137.3
(continued)
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