Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, vol. 2: Cognitive Processes

1123 Pages·2015·10.83 MB·English

by  Richard M. Lerner

HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
AND DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE
SeventhEdition
Volume 2
Cognitive Processes
VolumeEditors
LYNN S. LIBEN
ULRICH MÜLLER
Editor-in-Chief
RICHARD M. LERNER
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Handbookofchildpsychology
Handbookofchildpsychologyanddevelopmentalscience/RichardM.Lerner,editor-in-chief.—Seventhedition.
1onlineresource.
RevisionofHandbookofchildpsychology.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
DescriptionbasedonprintversionrecordandCIPdataprovidedbypublisher;resourcenotviewed.
ISBN978-1-118-13678-2(Vol.2,cloth)
ISBN978-1-118-13685-0(set,cloth)
ISBN978-1-118-95384-6(pdf)
ISBN978-1-118-95385-3(epub)
1.Childpsychology.  I.Lerner,RichardM.,editorofcompilation. II.Title.
BF721
155.4—dc23 2014033068
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
ForewordtotheHandbookofChildPsychologyandDevelopmentalScience,SeventhEdition v
Preface xiii
Volume2Preface xxi
Contributors xxiii
1 REFLECTIONSONCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 1
LynnS.LibenandUlrichMüller
2 BRAINANDCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 9
JoanStiles,TimothyT.Brown,FrankHaist,andTerryL.Jernigan
3 PERCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT 63
ScottP.JohnsonandErinE.Hannon
4 MOTORDEVELOPMENT 113
KarenE.AdolphandScottR.Robinson
5 ATTENTIONALDEVELOPMENT 158
JelenaRisticandJamesT.Enns
6 MEMORYDEVELOPMENT 203
MarkL.Howe
7 THEDEVELOPMENTOFSYMBOLICREPRESENTATION 250
TaraCallaghanandJohnCorbit
8 LANGUAGEDEVELOPMENT 296
BrianMacWhinney
iii
iv Contents
9 GESTUREANDCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 339
SusanGoldin-Meadow
10 THEDEVELOPMENTOFSOCIALUNDERSTANDING 381
JeremyI.M.CarpendaleandCharlieLewis
11 THEDEVELOPMENTOFPLAY 425
AngelineS.Lillard
12 CONCEPTUALDEVELOPMENT 469
VladimirSloutsky
13 THEDEVELOPMENTOFREASONING 519
RobertB.Ricco
14 THEDEVELOPMENTOFEXECUTIVEFUNCTION 571
UlrichMüllerandKimberlyKerns
15 THEDEVELOPMENTOFTEMPORALCOGNITION 624
TeresaMcCormack
16 THEDEVELOPMENTOFSCIENTIFICTHINKING 671
RichardLehrerandLeonaSchauble
17 THEDEVELOPMENTOFMATHEMATICALREASONING 715
TerezinhaNunesandPeterBryant
18 LITERACYDEVELOPMENT 763
ChristopherJ.Lonigan
19 GENDERANDSOCIAL-COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 806
CampbellLeaper
20 COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENTANDCULTURE 854
MaryGauvainandSusanPerez
21 ARTISTICDEVELOPMENT 897
ConstanceMilbrath,GaryE.McPherson,andMargaretS.Osborne
22 MEDIAANDCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 949
DanielR.AndersonandHeatherL.Kirkorian
23 ATYPICALCOGNITIVEDEVELOPMENT 995
BruceF.Pennington
AuthorIndex 1043
SubjectIndex 1083
Foreword to the Handbook of Child Psychology
and Developmental Science, Seventh Edition
WILLIAMDAMON
THEHANDBOOK’SDEVELOPINGTRADITION indicator and as a generator, a pool of received findings,
andasourceforgeneratingnewinsight.
Development is one of life’s optimistic ideas. It implies Itisimpossibletoimaginewhatthefieldwouldlooklike
not just change but improvement, progress, forward if Carl Murchison had not assembled a ground-breaking
movement, and some sense of positive direction. What collection of essays on the then-almost-unknown topic of
constitutes improvement in any human capacity is an childstudyinhisfirstHandbookofChildPsychology.That
open, important, and fascinating question requiring astute was1931,atthedawnofascholarlyhistorythat,likeevery
theoretical analysis and sound empirical study. So, too, developmentalnarrative,hasproceededwithacombination
are questions of what accounts for improvement; what of continuity and change. What does this history tell us
enhancesit;andwhatpreventsitwhenitfailstooccur.One about where the field of developmental science has been,
ofthelandmarkachievementsofthiseditionoftheHand- whatithaslearned,andwhereitisgoing?Whatdoesittell
book of Child Psychology and Developmental Science is usaboutwhat’schangedandwhathasremainedthesamein
that a full selection of top scholars in the field of human thequestionsthathavebeenasked,inthemethodsused,and
development have offered us state-of-the-science answers in the theoretical ideas that have been advanced to under-
standhumandevelopment?
totheseessentialquestions.
Compoundingtheinterestofthisedition,theconceptof
development applies to scholarly fields as well as to indi- TheFirstTwoEditions
viduals,andtheHandbook’sdistinguishedhistory,fromits
Carl Murchison was a star scholar/impresario who edited
inception more than 80 years ago to the present edition,
the Psychological Register, founded important psycho-
richly reveals the development of a field. Within the field
logical journals, and wrote books on social psychology,
ofhumandevelopment,theHandbookhashadalongand
politics,andthecriminalmind.Hecompiledanassortment
notable tradition as the field’s leading beacon, organizer,
of handbooks, psychology texts, and autobiographies of
and encyclopedia of what’s known. This latest Handbook
renowned psychologists, and even ventured a book on
edition,overflowingwithinsightsandinformationthatgo
psychic phenomena (Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Harry
wellbeyondthescientificknowledgeavailableinprevious
Houdiniwereamongthecontributors).Murchison’sinitial
editions, is proof of the substantial progress made by the
Handbook of Child Psychology was published by a small
fieldofhumandevelopmentduringitsstill-short(byschol-
universitypress(ClarkUniversity)in1931,whenthefield
arlystandards)history.
itselfwasstillinitsinfancy.Murchisonwrote:
Indeed, the history of developmental science has been
inextricablyintertwinedwiththehistoryoftheHandbook.
Experimentalpsychologyhashadamucholderscientificand
Like many influential encyclopedias, the Handbook influ-
academic status [than child psychology], but at the present
encesthefielditreportson.Scholars—especiallyyounger timeitisprobablethatmuchlessmoneyisbeingspentforpure
ones—look to it to guide their own work. It serves as an researchinthefieldofexperimentalpsychologythanisbeing
v
vi ForewordtotheHandbookofChildPsychologyandDevelopmentalScience,SeventhEdition
spentinthefieldofchildpsychology.Inspiteofthisobvious Other Europeans include Anna Freud, who wrote on
fact,manyexperimentalpsychologistscontinuetolookupon “The Psychoanalysis of the Child,” and Kurt Lewin, who
thefieldofchildpsychologyasaproperfieldofresearchfor wrote on “Environmental Forces in Child Behavior and
women and for men whose experimental masculinity is not Development”—both would gain worldwide renown in
of the maximum. This attitude of patronage is based almost
comingyears.
entirelyuponablissfulignoranceofwhatisgoingoninthe
The Americans that Murchison chose were equally
tremendouslyvirilefieldofchildbehavior.(Murchison,1931,
notable. Arnold Gesell wrote a nativistic account of his
p.ix)
twin studies—an enterprise that remains familiar to us
Murchison’s masculine allusion is from another era; it today—andStanford’sLewisTermanwroteacomprehen-
might supply good material for a social history of gender siveaccountofeverythingknownaboutthe“giftedchild.”
stereotyping. That aside, Murchison was prescient in the Harold Jones described the developmental effects of birth
task that he undertook and the way that he went about order,MaryCoverJoneswroteaboutchildren’semotions,
it. At the time this passage was written, developmental FlorenceGoodenoughwroteaboutchildren’sdrawings,and
psychology was known only in Europe and in a few Dorothea McCarthy wrote about language development.
forward-looking U.S. labs and universities. Nevertheless, Vernon Jones’s chapter on “children’s morals” focused
Murchison predicted the field’s impending ascent: “The on the growth of character, a notion that was to become
mostlylosttothefieldduringthecognitive-developmental
timeisnotfardistant,ifitisnotalreadyhere,whennearly
revolution, but that has reemerged in the past decade as a
allcompetentpsychologistswillrecognizethatone-halfof
primaryconcerninthestudyofmoraldevelopment.
the whole field of psychology is involved in the problem
Murchison’s vision of child psychology included an
of how the infant becomes an adult psychologically”
examinationofculturaldifferencesaswell.HisHandbook
(Murchison,1931,p.x).
presented to the scholarly world a young anthropologist
For this first 1931 Handbook, Murchison looked to
namedMargaretMead,justbackfromhertoursofSamoa
Europe and to a handful of American research centers
andNewGuinea. Inthisearlyessay,Meadwrotethather
for child study—most prominently, Iowa, Minnesota,
motivation in traveling to the South Seas was to discredit
University of California at Berkeley, Columbia, Stanford,
the claims that Piaget, Lévy-Bruhl, and other “structural-
Yale, and Clark—many of which were at the time called
ists” had made regarding what they called animism in
field stations. Murchison’s Europeans included a young
young children’s thinking. (Interestingly, about a third
“genetic epistemologist” named Jean Piaget, who, in an
of Piaget’s chapter in the same volume was dedicated to
essay on “Children’s Philosophies,” cited data from his
showinghowGenevanchildrentookyearstooutgrowtheir
interviewswith60Genevanchildrenbetweentheagesof4
animism.) Mead reported data that she called “amazing”:
and12years.Piaget’schapterwouldprovideU.S.readers
“In not one of the 32,000 drawings (by young ‘primi-
with an introduction to his soon-to-be seminal research
tive’ children) was there a single case of personalization
program on children’s conceptions of the world. Another
of animals, material phenomena, or inanimate objects”
European,CharlotteBühler,wroteachapteronyoungchil-
(Mead, 1931, p. 400). Mead parlayed these data into a
dren’s social behavior. In her chapter, which still is fresh
tough-mindedcritiqueofWesternpsychology’sethnocen-
today,Bühlerdescribedintricateplayandcommunication
trism,makingthepointthatanimismandotherbeliefsare
patterns among toddlers—patterns that developmental
morelikelytobeculturallyinducedthanintrinsictoearly
scientistswouldnotrediscoveruntilthelate1970s.Bühler
cognitivedevelopment.Thisishardlyanunfamiliartheme
also anticipated critiques of Piaget that were to be again
in contemporary psychology. Mead offered a research
launchedduringthesociolinguisticsheydayofthe1970s:
guide for developmental fieldworkers instrange cultures,
completewithmethodologicalandpracticaladvice,suchas
Piaget,inhisstudiesonchildren’stalkandreasoning,empha-
thefollowing:(1)translatequestionsintonativelinguistic
sizesthattheirtalkismuchmoreegocentricthansocial...that
categories; (2) do not do controlled experiments; (3) do
childrenfromthreetosevenyearsaccompanyalltheirmanip-
not try to do research that requires knowing the ages of
ulations with talk which actually is not so much intercourse
subjects, which are usually unknowable; and (4) live next
asmonologue...[but]thespecialrelationshipofthechildto
each of the different members of the household is distinctly doortothechildrenwhomyouarestudying.
reflected in the respective conversations. (Bühler, 1931, Despite the imposing roster of authors that Murchi-
p.138) son had assembled for this original Handbook of Child
ForewordtotheHandbookofChildPsychologyandDevelopmentalScience,SeventhEdition vii
Psychology, his achievement did not satisfy him for long. commercial firm of John Wiley & Sons was commensu-
Barely 2 years later, Murchison put out a second edition, rate with Carmichael’s well-known ambition; and indeed
ofwhichhewrote:“Withinaperiodofslightlymorethan Carmichael’s effort was to become influential beyond
2 years, this first revision bears scarcely any resemblance anything that Murchison might have anticipated. (The
totheoriginalHandbookofChildPsychology.Thisisdue switch to Wiley meant that what was to become known
chiefly to the great expansion in the field during the past as Wiley’s first edition was actually the Handbook’s third
3 years and partly to the improved insight of the editor” edition—and that what is now called the seventh edition
(Murchison, 1933, p. vii). The tradition that Murchison is really the Handbook’s ninth.) Carmichael renamed the
hadbroughttolifewasalreadydeveloping. volume the Manual of Child Psychology, in keeping with
Murchison saw fit to provide the following warning in Carmichael’s intention of producing an “advanced scien-
hissecondedition:“Therehasbeennoattempttosimplify, tific manual to bridge the gap between the excellent and
condense,ortoappealtotheimmaturemind.Thisvolume variedelementarytextbooksinthisfieldandthescientific
is prepared specifically for the scholar, and its form is for periodicalliterature”(Carmichael,1946,p.vi).
his maximum convenience” (Murchison, 1933, p. vii). It Despitethesmalltitlechange,therewassignificantcon-
is clear that Murchison, despite his impresario urges, was tinuitybetweentheMurchisonandCarmichael’seditions.
willingtosacrificeaccessibilityandtextbook-levelsalesfor Carmichaelacknowledgedthisintheprefacestobothofhis
scientificvalueinthisinstance. editions,the1946and1954Manuals:
Murchison exaggerated when he wrote that his second
edition bore little resemblance to the first. Almost half of Both as editor of the Manual and as the author of a special
thechapterswerevirtuallythesame,withminoradditions chapter, the writer is indebted.... [for] extensive excerpts
and updating. (For the record, though, despite Murchi- and the use of other materials previously published in the
HandbookofChildPsychology,RevisedEdition.(Carmichael,
son’s continued use of masculine phraseology, 10 of the
1946,p.vi)
24authorsinthesecondeditionwerewomen.)Someofthe
authorswhoseoriginalchaptersweredroppedwereasked BoththeHandbookofChildPsychologyandtheHandbookof
Child Psychology, Revised Edition, were edited by Dr. Carl
to write about new topics. So, for example, Goodenough
Murchison.Iwishtoexpressheremyprofoundappreciation
wrote about mental testing rather than about children’s
for the pioneer work done by Dr. Murchison in producing
drawings, and Gesell wrote a general chapter on matura-
these handbooks and other advanced books in psychology.
tionaltheorythatwentwellbeyondhisowntwinstudies.
TheManualowesmuchinspiritandcontenttotheforesight
But Murchison also made certain abrupt changes. He
andeditorialskillofDr.Murchison.(Carmichael,1954,p.v)
dropped Anna Freud entirely, prompting the marginaliza-
tion of psychoanalysis within U.S. academic psychology. The first quote comes from Carmichael’s preface to
Leonard Carmichael, later to play a pivotal role in the the 1946 edition, the second from his preface to the 1954
Handbook tradition, made his appearance as author of a edition. It is not known why Carmichael waited until the
majorchapter(byfar,thelongestinthebook)onprenatal 1954editiontoaddthepersonaltributetoCarlMurchison.
and perinatal growth. Three other physiologically ori- Perhaps a careless typist dropped the laudatory passage
entedchapterswereaddedaswell:oneonneonatalmotor from a handwritten version of the 1946 preface and its
behavior, one on visual–manual functions during the first omissionescapedCarmichael’snotice.Orperhaps8years
2yearsoflife,andoneonphysiological“appetites”suchas of furtherdevelopment increased Carmichael’s generosity
hunger,rest,andsex.CombinedwiththeGoodenoughand of spirit. It is also possible that Murchison or his family
Gesellshiftsinfocus,theseadditionsgavethe1933Hand- complained.Inanycase,Carmichaelalwaysacknowledged
bookamorebiologicalthrust,inkeepingwithMurchison’s therootsofhisManual,ifnotalwaystheiroriginaleditor.
long-standingdesiretodisplaythehard-sciencebackbone LeonardCarmichaeltookhis1946Manualinthesame
oftheemergingfield. directionestablishedbyMurchisonbackin1931and1933.
First, Carmichael appropriated five Murchison chapters
onbiologicalorexperimentaltopicssuchasphysiological
TheEarlyWileyEditions
growth,scientificmethods,andmentaltesting.Second,he
Leonard Carmichael was president of Tufts University added three new biologically oriented chapters on animal
when he organized Wiley’s first edition of the Handbook. infancy, on physical growth, and on motor and behav-
Theswitchfromauniversitypresstothelong-established ioral maturation (a tour de force by Myrtle McGraw that
viii ForewordtotheHandbookofChildPsychologyandDevelopmentalScience,SeventhEdition
instantlymadeGesell’schapterinthesamevolumeobso- phenomena of the growth and development of the child”
lete). Third, he commissioned Wayne Dennis to write a (Carmichael,1954,p.vii).
chapterthatfocusedexclusivelyonphysiologicalchanges The Murchison and Carmichael volumes make fasci-
associated with puberty. Fourth, Carmichael dropped nating reading, even today. The perennial themes of the
Piaget and Bühler, who, like Anna Freud years earlier, field were always there: the nature/nurture debate; the
werebecomingoutofstepwiththen-currentexperimental generalizations of universalists opposed by the particu-
trendsinU.S.psychology. larizations of contextualists; the alternating emphases on
The five Murchison chapters on social and cultural continuities and discontinuities during ontogenesis; and
influences in development were the ones Carmichael thestandardcategoriesofmaturation,learning,locomotor
retained: two chapters on environmental forces on the activity, perception, cognition, language, emotion, con-
child (by Kurt Lewin and by Harold Jones), Dorothea duct, morality, and culture—all separated for the sake of
McCarthy’schapteronchildren’slanguage,VernonJones’s analysis, yet, as authors throughout each of the volumes
chapter on children’s morality (now entitled “Character acknowledged,allsomehowjoinedinthedynamicmixof
Development—An Objective Approach”), and Margaret humandevelopment.
Mead’s chapter on “primitive” children (now enhanced These things have not changed. Yet much in the early
by several spectacular photos of mothers and children Handbooks/Manuals is now irrevocably dated. Long
from exotic cultures around the world). Carmichael also lists of children’s dietary preferences, sleeping patterns,
stuckwiththreeotherpsychologicallyorientedMurchison eliminationhabits,toys,andsomatictypeslookquaintand
topics (emotional development, gifted children, and sex pointlessthroughtoday’slenses.Thechaptersonchildren’s
differences),butheselectednewauthorstocoverthem. thought and language were done prior to the great con-
Carmichael’s second and final Manual in 1954 was temporarybreakthroughsinneurologyandbrain/behavior
very close in structure and content to his 1946 Manual. research, and they show it. The chapters on social and
Carmichael again retained the heart of Murchison’s orig- emotional development were ignorant of the processes of
inal vision, many of Murchison’s original authors and social influence and self-regulation that soon would be
chaptertopics,andsomeofthesamematerialthatdatedall revealed through attribution research and other studies in
thewaybacktothe1931Handbook.Notsurprisingly,the social psychology. Terms such as cognitive neuroscience,
chapters that were closest to Carmichael’s own interests neuronal networks, behavior genetics, social cognition,
receivedthemostsignificantupdating.AsMurchisonhad dynamical systems, information processing, and develop-
done,Carmichaelleanedtowardthebiologicalandphysio- mentalpsychopathologywereunknown.MargaretMead’s
logicalwheneverpossible.Heclearlyfavoredexperimental rendition of the primitive child stands as a weak straw
treatmentsofpsychologicalprocesses.YetCarmichaelstill in comparison to the wealth of cross-cultural knowledge
retained the social, cultural, and psychological analyses availableintoday’s“culturalpsychology.”
by Lewin, Mead, McCarthy, Terman, Harold Jones, and Mosttellingly,theassortmentsofoddfactsandnorma-
VernonJones,evengoingsofarastoaddanewchapteron tivetrendsweretiedtogetherbyverylittletheorythrough-
socialdevelopmentbyHaroldandGladysAndersonanda outtheCarmichaelchapters.Itwasasif,intheexhilaration
newchapteronemotionaldevelopmentbyArthurJersild. of discovery at the frontiers of a new field, all the facts
In 1946, when Carmichael had finished his first Man- lookedinterestinginandofthemselves.Thatiswhatmakes
ual,hehadcomplainedthat“thisbookhasbeenadifficult somuchofthematerialseemoddandarbitrary.Itishard
and expensive one to produce, especially under wartime toknowwhattomakeofthelistsoffacts,wheretoplace
conditions”(Carmichael,1946,p.vii).Buttheprojecthad them, which ones were worth keeping track of and which
been well worth the effort. The Manual quickly became onesareexpendable.Notsurprisingly,thebulkofthedata
the bible of graduate training and scholarly work in the presented in the Carmichael manuals seems not only out-
field, available virtually everywhere that human develop- datedbytoday’sstandardsbut,worse,irrelevant.
mentwasstudied.Eightyearslater,nowheadoftheSmith- Carmichael’s second and final Manual had a long
sonian Institution,Carmichael wrote, in the preface to his life: Not until 1970 did Wiley bring out a third edi-
1954 edition: “The favorable reception that the first edi- tion. Carmichael was retired by then, but he still had a
tion received not only in America but all over the world keeninterestinthebook.Athisinsistence,hisownname
isindicativeofthegrowingimportanceofthestudyofthe becamepartofthetitleofWiley’sthirdedition:Theedition