Table Of ContentHANDBOOK OF BREADMAKING TECHNOLOGY
HANDBOOK OF
BREADMAKING TECHNOLOGY
Charles A. Stear
Consultant, Salcombe, Devon, UK
ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE
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WITH 77 TABLES AND 160 ILLUSTRATIONS
© 1990 ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Stear, Charles A.
Handbook of breadmaking technology.
1. Bread. Manufacture
I. Title
664'.7523
Library of Congress Catalogjng-in-Publication Data
Stear, Charles A.
Handbook of breadmaking technology/Charles A. Stear.
p. em.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 1-85166-394-0
1. Bread. 2. Baking. I. Title.
1J(769.S794 1990
664'. 7523-{ic20
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Preface
The author's aim in writing this book is to integrate currently available knowledge
concerning the basic scientific and technological aspects of breadmaking processes
with the diverse breadmaking methods used to manufacture bread in Europe and on
the North American continent today. To date, the main technological advances
have been in process mechanization, starting with oven development, then dough
processing or make-up equipment, followed by continuous and batch mixing
techniques from the 1950s to the present time. On the engineering side, universal
emphasis is now being placed on the application of high technology, in the form of
microprocessors, computer-controlled equipment and robotization, the long-term
objective being computer integrated manufacture (CIM) with full automation
within the large chain bakery groups in the capitalist countries and the state-run
collectives of Eastern Europe. The application of these key technologies with
biotechnology, as yet only applied to a limited degree in food manufacture, coupled
with advances in biochemical and rheological understanding of dough as a biomass
for breadmaking, should provide us with more expertise and ability to control the
processes with greater efficiency. The application of fermentable substrates and
industrial enzymes under strict kinetic control should contribute to improving the
flavour characteristics of bread. Current trends towards improving the nutritional
contribution of bread to the daily diet are improving the competitive edge of bread
as a basic food in the market-place.
With the increasing consumer demand for a greater variety of quality oven-fresh
baked products, the balance in favour of the industrial sliced-and-wrapped hygienic
products is changing. The in-store bakeries of the chain grocers in city-centres and
out-of-town hypermarkets provide an improving range offresh products, owing to
their ability to select the best equipment and to train staff to be quality conscious.
This swing in favour of traditional fresh products will maintain the status of baking
as a craft industry, especially in the UK where its strength has never been as durable
as on the continent of Europe. In the East European countries, there is also a change
of emphasis taking place in the baking industry, brought about by the need to
provide the consumer outside the large cities with a greater choice of baked products
which are freshly baked and not transported from the factory-bakeries. This is being
achieved by in-stores and by fresh-baked product shops, and the planning of
country-production units with staff accommodation which can independently
supply products at district level.
The book consists of three parts dealing with mixing-stage technology and
international formulation and processing, with yeast and sour-dough fermentation
technology, and with bread-baking and preservation processes. It is addressed
internationally to cereal chemists, bakery technologists and production-orientated
v
VI Preface
readers, and its contents will contribute to a broader appreciation of the technology
of breadm aking. If, in so doing, it stimulates the generation of new ideas which result
in the improvement of the quality and variety of bread as the most important source
of nutrition for mankind, the collective international expertise of this work will have
served the baking industry world-wide.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the generous help given by the many bakery
machinery manufacturers and their agents in allowing the use of equipment
illustrations; and to the scientists and technologists in Eastern and Western Europe,
as well as North America, whose valuable collective contributions to research and
expertise in the bakery field have enhanced understanding and made this book
possible. Also, many thanks to the Editorial and Production team of Elsevier
Applied Science for their patient work and expertise in the organisation of this
book.
vii
Contents
Preface V
Acknowledgements Vll
PART 1. FUNDAMENTAL DYNAMICS OF THE MIXING PROCESS,
AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR DOUGH RHEOLOGICAL
BEHA VIOUR, PROCESS CONTROL AND OPTIMIZATION
1.1 Theoretical Model to Explain the Doughmaking Process 3
1.2 Application of Fundamental Dough-Mixing Parameters 9
1.2.1. Practical application of dough-mixing parameters for the
baker . 9
1.3 Fundamental Considerations Concerning Dough Rheological
Elements and Dynamic Mixing Parameters 11
1.4 Water-Binding Capacity of Dough Components and Dough
Consistency Control 21
1.5 Effects of Dough Additives 27
1.5.1 Cysteine 27
1.5.2 Sodium sulphite and metabisulphite (pyrosulphite) 29
1.5.3 Enzymes 30
1.5.4 Ascorbic acid 31
1.5.5 Fast-acting oxidants 34
1.5.6 Delayed-action oxidants 35
1.5.7 Glutathione 35
1.5.8 Surfactants, strengtheners/conditioners and crumb-softeners 37
1.5.9 Soy products 41
1.5.10 Vital wheat gluten and its derivatives 45
1.5.11 Hydrocolloids 53
1.5.12 Starch-based products 54
1.5.13 Cellulose and cellulose derivatives 55
1.5.14 Salt, acids and metallic ions 58
1.6 Chemical bonding during doughmaking 60
1.7 Typical Formulation and Process Schedules (including Case Studies)
for Wheat and Rye Breads employed in Western and Eastern Europe
and North America 86
1.7.1 France 86
1.7.2 Spain 90
ix
x Contents
1.7.3 Switzerland 92
1.7.4 Austria 94
1.7.5 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) 96
1.7.6 German Democratic Republic (GDR) 108
1.7.7 USSR 143
1.7.8 Hungary 196
1.7.9 Czechoslovakia 197
1.7.10 Poland 201
1.7.11 Collaboration within the COMECON baking industries 203
1.7.12 United Kingdom (UK) 206
1.7.13 North America . 268
1.8 Measurement and Control Techniques for Raw Materials and
Process Variables 306
1.8.1 Raw materials-chemical and microbiological 306
1.8.2 Process variables 359
1.8.3 Measuring systems based on dough deformation 371
1.8.4 Cleanliness and sanitation (hygiene) 372
1.9 Weigher-Mixer Functions and Diverse Types of Mixers and Mixing-
Regimes. 394
1.9.1 Weigher-mixer functions 394
1.9.2 Weighing methods 399
1.9.3 Types of mixer and mixing-regimes 408
PART 2. FERMENTATION OF WHEAT- AND RYE-FLOUR DOUGHS
2.1 Introduction . 467
2.2 Industrial Propagation and Production of Yeast for the Baking
Industry . 469
2.2.1 Yeast physiology 471
2.2.2 Improvement of industrial yeasts 475
2.2.3 Post-fermentation yeast technology 476
2.3 Chemical Changes in Yeasted Doughs during Fermentation 479
2.4 Wheat- and Rye-Sours and Sour-Dough Processing 492
2.4.1 Process variables 497
2.4.2 Processing stages 501
2.5 Formulation and Processing Techniques for Specialty-Breads 522
2.5.1 Multi-grain breads 523
2.5.2 High-fibre breads 524
2.5.3 High-protein breads 525
2.5.4 Mecklenburger Landbrot 528
2.5.5 Malfa-Kraftma-Brot. 529
2.5.6 Pumpernickel 530
2.5.7 Wheat or rye wholemeal 532
2.5.8 Bran-bread with raisins 534
Contents Xl
PART 3. THE BAKING PROCESS
3.1 Aims and Requirements of the Baking Process 539
3.2 Elements of the Baking Process and their Control 553
3.2.1 Influence of the elements on the dough-piece and its
components 579
3.3 Energy Sources, Types of Oven and Oven Design 596
3.3.1 Energy sources . 596
3.3.2 Types of oven and oven design 602
3.4 Control Technology and Energy Recovery 620
3.5 Bread Cooling and Setting 638
3.5.1 Types of bread cooler 639
3.5.2 Moisture movements during the cooling and maturation of
bread 641
3.5.3 Bread quality changes due to storage 649
3.6 Dough and Bread Preservation 679
3.6.1 Retardation of staling processes 679
3.6.2 Prevention of microbial infection 682
3.6.3 Dough preservation by freezing 689
3.6.4 Bread preservation by freezing . 708
3.7 A Preview of the 1990s and Changes in Product Demand and
Supply 715
PART 4. NOTES AND REFERENCES
4.1 Notes and References for Part 1 721
4.2 Notes and References for Part 2 745
4.3 Notes and References for Part 3 764
Index 837
PART 1
Fundamental Dynamics of the Mixing
Process, and their Implications for Dough
Rheological Behaviour, Process Control and
Optimization
