Table Of ContentHabitat requirements for the Green and Golden Bell Frog
Litoria aurea (Anura: Hylidae)
Graham H. Pyke' and Arthur W. White2
'Australian A4useum, 6 College Street, Sydney, New South M'ales 2000.
2BiosphereE nvironmental Consultants, 69 Bestic Road. Rockdale, New South Wales 2216.
ABSTRACT
We examined the habitat features of sites where the Green and Golden Bell Frog is known to
have been present, differentiatingb etween those sites where breeding is known to have occurred and
those where breeding has not been recorded. We found that, for a site to suppolt a breeding PoPulation
of the species, it should contain water bodies which are still, shallow, ephemeral, unpolluted, unshaded
and free of Gambusia and other predatory fish. It should have a grassy area nearby and other nearby
vegetation should be no higher than woodland. The substrate of the ponds should be sand or rock.
aquatic plants should be present and there should be a range of possible diurnal shelter sites, including
vegetation and rocks.
INTRODUCTION kind of freshwater course and water body
including swamps, wetlands and marshes
The Green and Golden Bell Frog LztoG aurea
(Fletcher 1889; Lucas and Le Souef 1909; Hoser
is presently listed on Schedule 12 of the New
1989; Cogger 1992; Greer 1994; Bell 1982;
South Wales National Parks and Wildlife AA 1974 Moore 1961), rivers, streams and creeks (Cogger
as an endangered fauna species in New South 1992; Greer 1994; Bell 1982; Courtice and
Wales. It has gone from being a common frog Grigg 1975; Hoser 1989; Lucas and Le Souef
in New South Wales (see, for example, Lucas 1909; Moore 1961), lakes and lagoons (Cogger
and Le Souef 1909; Greer 1994; Tyler 1976, 1992; Bell 1982; Moore 1961), ponds (Cogger
1992) to being now known from only about 30 1992; Greer 1994; Bell 1982; Courtice and
locations in this state (White and Pyke 1996). Grigg 1975; Moore 1961) and farm dams (Cogger
The decline in New South Wales appears to be 1992; Courtice and Grigg 1975). Such a broad
continuing (Lunney el al. 1995; White and Pyke definition of suitable habitat provides little
1996). guidance in tenns of how to manage the species
and its habitat.
The status of the Green and Golden Bell Frog
outside of New South Wales is uncertain. It is It is clear, however, that not every water
not known whether populations of the species course or water body within the geographical
in Victoria have changed but the species is range of the Green and Golden Bell Frog is suit-
believed to be still present throughout its able for the species. Some sites that were once
known range in Victoria and there are no known suitable for the species are now apparently
sites in that state where it has apparently unsuitable. Though originally very widespread,
disappeared (Gillespie 1996, pers. comm.). The it did not occur in every freshwater location.
species has been introduced into New Zealand, Hence it should be possible to better define the
New Caledonia and the New Hebrides where it habitat requirements of this species.
is stated to be locally abundant (Tyler 1976; Bell
The aim of this paper is to determine the
1982).
habitat requirements of the Green and Golden
In order to adequately conserve and manage Bell Frog from a survey of a reasonably large
the Green and Golden Bell Frog it is necessary number of known locations of the species. These
to know and understand its habitat require- locations include almost all of those sites in New
ments. Only then can threatening processes be South Wales where it has been recorded since
potentially controlled and recovery plans be 1990 as well as some from which it apparently
initiated. If the habitat requirements are well disappear-ed earlier.
enough defined, it may also be possible to
The present paper will differentiate between
protect the species through protection of areas
breeding and non-breeding habitat for the
where it is likely (but not necessarily known) to
Green and Golden Bell Frog and will give
occur.
particular attention to the breeding habitat of
Judging from the published literature on the the species. A population of the species cannot
Green and Golden Bell Frog, this species occurs maintain itself without successful reproduction.
in a very wide range of conditions. It has been On the other hand, given the apparently strong
reported to inhabit virtually every conceivable dispersal abilities of the species (White 1995;
224 Australian Zwlogisf 30(2) May 7996
White and Pyke, unpubl. obs.), sheltering or (g) aquatic plant species present 01- nearby;
moving individuals may easily occur in locations
(h) adjacent and nearby vegetation types (in
that are unsuitable for breeding. Hence, while
addition to any areas of grass) within 50 m
the nature of sites where the species is found
of frog observation (sensu Specht 1970;
should give some indication of its habitat
LOS = low open shrubland; LOW = low
requirements, these requirements may be
open woodland; W = woodland; OG =
clearest when attention is devoted to breeding
open grassland; LW = low woodland;
requirements.
TOS = tall open shrubland or scrubland;
METHODS OS = open scrub; OH = open heath;
OW = open woodland; S = sedgeland;
Almost all known locatiolls in New South LS = low shrubland; G = grassland; CH =
Wales where the Green and Golden Bell FI-og closed heath);
has been found are described in White and Pyke
(1996). These include 43 locations where the (i) extent to which site is shaded (i.e., none,
partial, full);
species has been recorded since 1990 (and
possibly recorded earlier) and another 112 (j) nature of water source (i.e., UR = urban
locations where the species was found earlier but runoff; IK = industrial runoff; PK = park-
where it has not been recorded since 1990 land runoff; GR = grazing I-unoff; NK =
(1,Vhite and Pyke 1996). natural vegetation runoff);
The present paper considers 74 oY these
(k) natul-e of available diul-nal shelter sites
known locations for the Green and Golden Bell
(e.g., A = artificial - including road ballast,
Frog. These are the locations that we have so far
road culvert, industrial debris, building
visited and for which the necessary information
debl-is, gal-bage; V = vegetation 01- plant
is available (see below). They are locations that
cover; R = natural exposed rocks; T = fallen
we believe have remained essentially unchanged
timber or logs);
between the last record of the species there and
our visit, and for which, in the case of past (I) other frog species detected or known to be
records, we have enough detail concerning present and whether or not any species
~rheret he records were made to be able to showed evidence of breeding (i.e., presence
determine the appropriate habitat details. The of eggs or tadpoles);
dates of these visits are presented in Table 1. All (Note, however, that full surveys of the frog
visits prior to 1994 were made by AW. Cauna present at each site have not been
For the locations included in this paper we carried out).
recorded the following information:
(m) whether Mosquito Fish, Carp, Eels or other
(a) nature of water present (i.e., "permanent" fish species that are known or likely to prey
= permanent with little fluctuation in level; on frog eggs or tadpoles are present
"fluctuating" = permanent with widely (determined with a fish trap baited with
fluctuating water level; "ephemeral"; bread andlor visibly);
combinations of these);
(n) level of disturbance to site (i.e., high =
(b) rate of water flow (i.e., still = no flow for significan~d isturbance to both the water
most of the year; slow = regular flow at less regime and the surrounding areas; e.g.,
than 1 m per minute; rapid = regular flow most industrial and urban sites; medium =
at more than 1 m per minute): significant disturbance to surrounding
areas but little disturbance of water regime,
(c) maximum depth of water body in cm; e.g., pasture, parkland; low = only localized
(d) surface area of water in square metres; disturba~lcct o surrounding areas and little
disturbance to the water rebrl' mes; none = no
(e) substrate of water bodies (is., AS = alluvial obvious disturbance to either the surround-
sand, mean grain size 0.2-1.0 mm; AC = ing area or to the water body).
alluvial clay, mean grain size less than
0.2 ,mm; Rss = Rock base, exposed sand- In addition, for locations where breeding by
stone; Ksh = Rock base, exposed shale; the Green and Golden sell rvas recorded, we
R = Rubble consisting of broken rock collected this same information for the actual
pieces, bricks, building debris or industrial water body in which hreeding occurred as well
debris, larger than 1 c d ; C = cement or as for other nearby watel- bodies.
concrete lined);
Because successful breeding activity is essential
(f) nature and extent of any obirious evidence to long-term pel-sistence of the Green and
of water pollution (e.g., presence of human Golden Bell Frog in an area, we considered
garbage, water discolouration, visible signs whether or not breeding had been reported
of eutrophication); from a locatioll as the dependent variable and
Australian Zoologist 30(2) 225
Table 1. Summarv of visits ro known locations for thr Green and Colder, Bell Frog (GGBF) and of observations made at there locations
Max. Visible
lave1 of M'arer *'ale7 Watcr Water warer
No. Name Visit derails dirrurbarrce Row Subrtnte depth level SOUTCC poI1uti1)n
I r\rncliffe 1981-1995 High S~ill AS 30 cm Ephemeral Yes
2 Bombah Point 1990-1994 lnw Srill AS 50 cm Ephemenl No
3 Brundrr Swamp 1993-1994 Medium Sh,x AS 50 cm Ephemeral No
4 Braidwcxd 1993 Medium Still AC 1-2 m Permanent No
5 Bundanrrm 1991 High Still AS 25 cm Permanent No
6 Byrun Bay 1994--1995 High Still AS I-2m No
7 Camden 1991 High Srill RIS 50 cm No
8 Coppio's Crossing 1990,1993 Medium Slow Rrh 0-1 m No
9 Cooma 1991 Medium SIill Rsh 50 cm Prrnlanenr No
10 Coomonderry Swamp 1993-1995 1.ow %ill AS 0-1 m Perrnasenc No
I1 Carmonderry Pasrure 1993-1995 Medium Still AS 15cm Ephemeral No
12 Darker Forest 1978-1995 Irn*' Still RSS 0-1 m Permanent No
I3 Diggers Camp 1994 1.ow Srill AS 0-50 cm Fluctualing No
14 Eartlakcr Creek 1968-1995 High Slow AS 50 cm Permanent Yes
15 Eastlakes GolfCourse 1968-1995 Medium Still AS 15 cm Ephemeral No
16 Last Hills 1991, 1993 High Still AS 1-2 m Permanent NO
17 Fitzruy Falls 1991 I.o*, Slow Rss 50 cm Permanent NO
18 Georges Hall 1974, 1993 High Still AC 50 cm Ephemeral Yes
19 Greenacre Brickpir 1993-1995 High Still AC 2-4 m Permanent No
20 Greenacre Marrhalling Yards 1994-1995 High Sfill AC SO cm Permanent No
21 Greenacre Cox'r Creek 1995-1995 Medium Sluw AC 50 cm Fluccuaring Yes
22 Greenacre Srormwacer 1993-1995 High Still AC 15cm Ephemeral
23 Greet~wellP oint 1992 law Still AS 50 cm Permanent
24 Hammondville Dam 1993-1995 Medium Still AC 1-2 m Permanent
25 Hammondvillc Pasture 199.7-1995 Medium Still AC 15 cm Ephemeral No
26 Helensburg 1970,1994 Medium Still AS 50 cm Permanent Yes
27 Holswunhy 1993 High Rss 1-2 rn Permanent Yes
28 Homebush Brickpil 199.7-1995 High Still Rsh 30 crn Ephemeral No
29 Homebush Manure Pond 1993-1995 Medium Srill C 1 m Ephemeral Yes
30 Homehush CuncrereTanks 1993-1995 High Still C 1 m Ephemeral Yes
31 Hurnchurhlake Domis 1993-1995 High Srill R 30 cm Ephemeral No
32 Humchush Hill Road 1993-1995 High Srill R lOcm Ephemeral Yes
33 Homehush Nrwinglon 1993-1995 Medium S~ill AC 0-1 m Ephemeral Yes
34 Rcmhlawarra 1994 I.uw Still AS 0.5-1 m Permanent No
35 Kioloa 1990,1992 lux Srill AS 1 m Permanent No
36 Kilalea lag<,on 1994-1995 I.o*, Srill AS 0-1 m Permanent No
37 Kurnell- nonh 1975. Medium Still AS 0-30 cm Ephemeral Yes
1990-1995
1975, Medium Srill AS 0-30 cm Ephemeral
1990bl995
1969. Medium Still Rss 30cm Ephemeral
1990-1995
1973, 1994 ].ow Srill AS 0-5Dcm Permanent NO
1975. Medium S~ill AS 0-30 cm Ephemeral Yes
1990-1995
1965. High Still AS 50 cm Fluctuating Yes
1990-1995
43 Mascor 1974, 1993 High Srill AS 0-1 m Ephemeral Yer
44 Mclun~llruirt 1994 High S~ill R 0-50 cm Ephemeral No
45 Moruya Heads 1975. 1993 Medium Still AS 0-50 cm Fluctuating No
46 Murray's Beach 1993-1995 L*,w Still Rss 0-1 m Fluctuating No
47 Nadgee 1985 Irw Srill AS 0-1 m Flucruaring No
48 Nonh Ryde 1993-1995 High Srill AC 0-1 m Permanent No
49 mean Shures 1994 Medium Srill AS 0-1 m Flucruating Yes
511 Ohercm 1994 High Slox, Rss 0-50 cm Flucruating Yes
51 Ourimhah 1970-1905 Medium Slow AS 0-1 m Flucruaring No
52 Picton 1975, 1994 High Still Rsa 30 cm Perrnanenr No
53 PirtTown 1974. 1994 Medium Srill AS 0-50 cm Fluctuating Yes
226 Australian Zoologist 30(2) May 1996
etailed descriptions of these lucarions, see LVhitc and Pyke 1995: locarions are numbered and listed alphahetically).
Ncarbp Ocher Brceding Surl
.Aquatic Grassy nearby Slrelter rccolrlml area
plant rpecics area vcg. types sites Predarun fish O~hefrr og sprcirr byGGBF sqn
Tjphn Yes LOS A,\, None Lir,~.p ronii, Crinia sip8fem Yes 25
I T~~IIPIIlz.m pnile.~ No LO\$' A,V Nonc Crirriri ripifiro No 45
I Tjplh Yes \<' \J,T N\'one Lijn. p~raniiO, inias ipt@lo No 250
Tvpho, El~orhnrii Yes 06 I\ Gnmbrirrk ti~tp.e ?~o~Ciir,in io sipt$?ro No 500
I Elerxl~oriiA, ympbaide5, Yes L\\, .A Goldhrb Cmrn~icrn, sr<ztt~~ Litolio Mroriii, Lim. pemnii No 25
So LOW' Nonc No
Yes L1Y Ce~,br~iin No
Yes 1.OW Carp Cj/>"?rrrr mrpm, NO
Gnnbami,~
~~l~oriml,~ Yes OG None Lilmia v?rv<~c(xCi, n~riso ipi/e~~N O
Tjpha, EIcoc1,"ri~ Yes TOS Gnmhzr.~in Lit,,. pe?rlrl>l(, ;,~i,,i" sip,i/er<, No
Tylrhn, Eirochori~ Yes TOS Xone Lim. per onrr, (:~~in,rgiar,rJi& i Yes
EIenrhalu Yes 0s Cnmbrvio Litorir~~ lerzt~~Ll~on, rp. eronii No
Tjphn,J u,to,s No OII Sone Lirn. prr-osii, Lilolirr puronii No
Typho, P t ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ Y~esi f ~ . ~0 (: Gnr,b,,.7i", Carp L,n. per<>>r!(i,; ,l,ri<, \i&rn,,/~><, No
Tjphn, Phmpnilrs Yes OG None Lhn. prmriii. (:lhrinrtpfcrn Yes
fileoclmnj Yes OG Gnrriblrii" ti,,,,p ?w,>rr,, Gi,in ,i~iir/r.rn NO
I Elcocltoris, ~\~,nplroid~.r, Yes O\V Cn,?ckuin, Rainlx,nTn~ut Lim. p~raaiiC, nlrrn irprfero NO
LVarer Lilies Snintogniwlrz~r-i
I Jzrnorr Yes I .OW Gnrnb<irin NO
Tjpho Yes OG Gnmb~irin NO
None Yes OG None xu
I T)pl~o Yes TOS Ernpirc Gudgeon Hjprrlrolri.% No
compre.~.~"F, ircwil
Gudgcon H. plli
I ljphn Yes TOS v None Yes
I Ekarhnm, Typlzn Yes LOW V None Yes
Eleipoihnfi Yes LOW V (k~rnblr~ki, No
Ketlfin PcrcoJluvinllk
Elrarhnrir Ycs LOW \, None Liac prronii, Crirrinri~vtiJ~m
Typhn, Eirr~~iuiu~ Yes OH \,,T None I.in,?-. perortii, Litorin p<mo?zii,
,"l.,l~,<., .,8g,<ifi,<,
I TypI~u YCS V,R Gamb,,sm, Redlin lim. prouii, Crinin sipl/nu Ko
Typl~phuJ, unrin Yc* 1r.R.A Sone 1.inz. prorlli, Cri,,i,, .rip,i/ero Yes
Rikugu Yes \I Xone Lim. perorrii Yes
None Yes A None 1.i"~. pe~"r,ii Yes
Sane Yes K None Linr. pe~urrii,C >i,~irni,q $+irro, Yes
Lim. l<ur,i~~t~ier~,~i,~
Jurrcus, Grass O?S p) Yes \t.A None Llm. per-"ail, Cririin sipi@,u Yes
None Yes V Nonc Lim. perusii, Lim. lmmnnit,tiis, Yes
Criaia ri,~,iIcm
Yes V Gnmhrr.rin Lrm. pr,onii Yes
Yes V Gamb,r~ia Livl. fleronii, Cri?zio ~ i p ~ q w ~ No
Yes V (;a,"busi<' Linl, t,rro,tii, Criuin ,sipt,/rm N<>
Yes V Nonc (;,i,,i<~ .sip,;/?,<, No
T,eho Nu IS V Gnmb<rsin Cri~i.ns ~~,z$P~o Ycs 80
I jrrnrw Yes 1.0s A Norlc Lim pe?0?~82(:,~ irci,t .%i~~ti/<mo So 10
Tjphez, Eleorhnrlr Yes G V Gnnghi~cin
I Tjpho Yes LO\\' \, None
Yes
Yes Cnmbzirin 1.im peroni(, Crhrio.$ipti/~m
Ycs None Lirn. prro,rid, Cnrmirp$ern
Yes Combmu Lim. peronit, Criain riptpm
Yes Eels (iin~uillarp .) Lint. {W",<ii, L,,<~"l,,i,,
lanir~oloc,r i,,;, .,i~~t,;/,r~
NO Sone Lire. pemari
Yes l.ongIish Neacerolarlu.s/orr~rri Lit,,. prronii, Grintin rignvem
Yes nor^ Lim. peroflii, Crir~.sii~p ti/er~i
Yes Gamhusia, Carp Lim. pezonii
Yes Gnmbuii" Lim. ~rmrtii1,. i10riopel~vtii
Yes Gamblrria, Redfin Lint. pnonii, ~~i~~,rnp~~,,ii
Yes Gumhiria Lirrr. p~ro?!iiL,i torin fiewsii
May 1996 Australian Zoologist 30(2) 227
Max. Visible
Level of Warer water Water Water water
No. Name Visit derails dkrurbance flow Subscrate deprh level source pollution
54 Part Kembla High Srill AS 0-30 crn Flucruaring No
55 Primbec Medium Srill AS 0-1 m Fluctuating Yes
56 Ravcnrwonh High Srill AC 50 cm Ephemeral Yes
57 Raymond Terrace High Srill AS 0-50 cm Fluctuating Yes
58 Richmond High Sdll AS Fluctuating No
59 Rosebery High Sdll AS Fluctuadng No
60 Ryan's Swamp Low Still AS Fluctuating No
61 Sans Souci High Srill AS Ephemeral Yes
62 Shellharbour Medium Still AS Fluctuating Yes
63 Smith's lake 1uw Srill AS Flucruating No
64 Shoalhaven Heads 1.0," Srill AS Flucruaring No
65 Telegraph Point l.0~ Srill AS Fluctuating NO
66 University of Canberra Low Srill Rrh Fluctuating No
67 Wmluoware 1.0," Srill AS Ephemeral Yes
68 U'anda Medium Still AS Permanenr No
69 Yuragir Blue Lagoon 1.0~ Srill AS Flucruating No
70 Yuragjr Sraiion Creek l.0~ Srill AS Flucruating NO
71 Uriarra l.0~ Slow Rsh Permanent No
72 U'arrell Creek (.ow Slow AS Fluctuating No
73 Woragi Swamp Medium Still AS Ephemeral Yes
74 Wvone Medium Still AS Flucrualine Yes
the other observations made at each location as analysis: X: = 0.17, P = 0.68). To maximize the
independent variables (see Table 1). In cases, numbers of ponds per cell in subsequent three
where there were small sample sizes for some or higher-way cross-tabulation for further
variable categories, these categories were analysis, the categories fluctuating and permanent
combined with others (see below). were therefore combined (see below).
We used stepwise loglinear analysis to
determine which variables showed differences Table 2. Effect of water level on breeding by the CCBF.
between breeding and non-breeding (i.e., breed-
Breeding Breeding
ing not known) locations (see Sokal and Rohlf
Natureofwaterlevel known nor known
1981). Variables were added so long as their
"
addition resulted in a significant increase in the Permanent
likelihood ratio X2. At each step the variable Flucruating
which resulted in the greatest increase in the x2 E~hemeral
value was added. For the resulting variables we
present the results separately for breeding and
non-breeding locations. For the other variables Breeding and non-breeding ponds also
we present the results for all locations combined. differed significantly in terms of whether or not
predatory fish were present (Log-linear analysis:
1st variable entered -ephemeral vs. fluctuating
RESULTS
or permanent - X: = 10.54, P = 0.001; 2nd
Locations where breeding of the Green and variable entered - whether or not predatory fish
Golden Bell Frog had been successful (i.e., present - x$ for additional variable = 19.46,
resulted in eggs or tadpoles) differed significantly P = 0.001). Breeding has occurred more
from other locations where the species has been frequently in ponds that do not have predatory
found with respect to the degree to which the fish present rather than in ones that do (Table 3).
. -
water body is permanent vs. ephemeral (Log-
,
Xi
linear analysis: = 10.71, P = 0.005). Breed-
ing has occurred in a significantly higher Table 3 Effect of presence of predatory fish on breeding by
the GCBF.
proportion of sites with ephemeral ponds rather
than of sites with fluctuating or permanent Breeding Breeding
ponds (Table 2) and there is no significant Predatoryfish known not known
difference between fluctuating and permanent
~~~,","~
ponds in terms of the proportion of ponds 154 35
20
known to supp)rt successful breeding (Log-linear
228 Australian Zoologist 30(2) May 1996
.Yearh? Orher Bre~ding Sllrf~ce
.quatic Gr;$rry nearby Shelrer recorded ;area
Shade planr species area veg. t~,pes sires Pred;trr,rr fish Orher frog specics by GGRF aq m
Sone Typlro Yes OC; 1, Srme ri,,,. prrrirrii KO 400
None TJ/>Im Yes Oc; V <:oa~bnsio Lit. I ,i i YCI ? 500
Sone TJpIco Yes 06 \' Sone Lirn. /xrurrii, Cririn si~npla So 25
P.a:~ rtal T~p/z~z,]r~~t~~~.Y~c s 0\\' I \ Cornbarin ILDIp. ero!ui ti" 3 500
Sane T~/,bn r.i,,r. p<r"?zzz s'<, 6 000
Sune None i:~~zn.isoq ,zfero Ycr 800
None Elrorborn Lilurio pmonii, Lil. je,~~isi~~t,~iS.?o 2500
Li,. pero,iii. Olrzin ripfern,
U/~'l,r,alrilan ri,ignlo
Critzu~s iptqnn KO ill0
~\'arrc Ty/>Ito Yes 1.S A <;ombtnin i;ti,,i" .sig,,qet<, s<> I0
None Eleoilm~rj,r zaim No CH V Norre Lin. pero,zii, Crit~iusi qrqera So 1 5011
Sonc Typlzo Yes CC. V Cnalbt,s,n Lit. i C i i Yes 400
Sor~c T~plro YCS -ros 1 ' C",nil,,.7i" Criwo sipz~ern So 6(10
I Typ6n Ycr I.O\V \) Cnr,,b,,nrr I .p i ' i . S o 40
None Ty/,6o No 1.0s J\ Sane cr,,,ia .Si~?,f<,,~ No -1-3
None Ts/~lmE,1 i.odmri.r \'es LOS I \ Garnb,riiii Liln prranii, Giuin rk,,geru \'CIS 3 500
Parrial Typlto Yes CH I\ None Lit,,, pvrorlii No 40 0011
Partial Typilii Yes 1.0s None Livz. pnonii No ?I)
Partial Tjpha Ycr I.\Y V Gorr8kiri0, Garp cri,2,<, i ~ ~ ~ i / ~ r " ti" 1 000
None qphiia Yer 1.S V G,,r,,hc,.rin i n ." i ,: i . i No 4 000
None Cjpotrr, Eleluorlm~.~ Yes \\' V.A Gornblrrirr (:ti,,i" .s,&r,zfer<, Sc, 1 ?OO
None T>,pItol,i leoclinr& Yes TOS V Gamb~csin Lir!~p. rronri, Crinio~ip,zi/em X<n 10 000
The most prevalent predatory fish was the (11) most have the f'rogs Crinia signfero or
Mosquito Fish Cambusia holbruoki (see also Li~~~nodynortep..err onij prcsent (Table 3);
Morgan 1996). It was one of, il' not the only,
predatory fish present at 36 sites. Other predatory Table i. Known pl-esenceiabscnce of O-in," rignfr,n anrl
Li,rinu~l~nnslepcr ranii.
fish were PI-esent without Gnmbxsia. at only four
sites. Known tu No1 known ro
Frog species be present be present
The total sample size of ponds is not large
enough to permit further determination of signifi- Crft~ixoig ~~i/er<t 53 ? 1
Litnnorlynnslu~p v,nrlii 60 14
cant differences between breeding and non-
breeding ponds. When such analysis is attempted,
too many of the classification cells contain
fewer than five observations. Breeding and non- (c) most have been moderately or highly
breeding ponds were therefore combined in disturbed, and none are apparently
further examining properties of ponds used by undisturbed (Table 6);
the Green and Golden Bell Frog.
Tnbiv 6. Level of disturbance ro site.
Tabulating the information for each variable
Levelof d,srurbarrce Zi~~rnl>ofcs~ll es
in Table 1 reveals that sites where the Grcen
and Golden Bell Frog has been found have thc High
following properties: Medium
LO,"
(a) most have vegetation providing potential None
sites for diurnal shelter; other kinds of
potential shelter sites occur in a minority of
ponds (Table 4); (d) almost all sites have some aquatic plant
species present (Table 1); in most cases
Typh sp. is PI-esent (Table 7);
Table 4. Potential diurnal shelter sires available.
Table 7. Aquatic plant species present.
Shelter type Prerent Abrrnt
-
I'lanr species Prrsetlt i\hsenr
Artificial 14 60
Rock 9 65 Tjpho sp. 49 95
Timber 5 65 Eleochoris sp. 19 55
Vegclarion 66 8 ,/rrncus sp. I I 63
May 1996 Australian Zoologist 30(2) 229
(e) most have still water, a few have slow Table 13. Nearbv veeetation.
moving water, and none have rapid flowing
Nearbv vegetation Number of sires
water (Table 8);
Grassland
Tnble 8. Rate of water flow. Heathland
Shrubland
Rate of water flow Numkrof sites Woodland
Slow lo (k) most are unshaded and none are completely
Rapid 0
shaded (Table 14);
Table 14. Extent of shade over water body.
(f) the water source for most sites is either
urbanlindustrial runoff or runoff from Shade Number of sires
grazing or park land; for a minority of
None 49
sites the source is runoff from natural
vegetation (Table 9);
Table 9. Nature of water source.
(I) most have an area of grass nearby (Table 15);
Water source Number of sites
Table 15. Presencelabsence of other factors.
IndustriaVUrban 24
Grazing 23 Factor Presenr Absent
ParklandINatural vegetation 27
Nearby grassy area 67
Visible oollution 25
(g) the substrate is mostly sand or rock but is
clay in some cases (Table 10);
(m) most have no visible signs of water pollution
Table 10. Type of substrate. (Table 15).
Substrate Number of sites
DISCUSSION
Alluvial clay I I
Alluvial sand 45 The above analysis indicates that for a location
RocWconcrete 18 to be likely to support a population of the Green
and Golden Bell Frog in New South Wales it
should have the following related attributes:
(h) most sites have ponds which are shallow
with maximum water depth less than There should be a grassy area reasonably
50 cm (Table 11); near to any water bodies, and other nearby
vegetation should be woodland or lower in
Table 11. Maximum depth of water. maximum height;
Depth Number of sites The substrate should he sand or rock;
0-50 cm 43 The water bodies should be still, shallow,
50-100 cm 22
ephemeral and unpolluted. Such water
100-200 cm 9
bodies are most likely to occur in areas which
experience disturbance (either natural or
(i) the ponds have surface areas that range unnatural) and where surface water runoff
r .
from on1 about 0.01 m2 up to about from local unpolluted areas collects to form
40 000 m w~tha median surface area of temporary ponds;
500 m2; most are no more than 1 000 m2
The water bodies should be unshaded and
in surface area (Table 12);
free of Gambusia and other predatory fish;
Table 12. Surface area of water budv There should be aquatic plants present,
preferably TyPha sp.;
Surface area Number of sites
There should be a range of possible diurnal
shelter sites available, including vegetation
and rocks.
A location with these attributes should cater
(j) nearby vegetation is generally low, ranging for all the known biological requirements of the
from grassland and heath to shrubland and Green and Golden Bell Frog. Feeding may occur
woodland; no sites have nearby forest in the grassy area (e.g., Lucas and Le Souef 1909)
(Table 13); or amid the aquatic vegetation (e.g., Courtice
230 Australian Zoologist 30(2) May 1996
and Grigg 1975). Basking may occul- on the While artificial habitat specifically designed
vegetation in and near the pond (e.g., Bell 1982; for frogs has been developed on a number of
Fletcher 1889; Hoser 1989; Pastorelli 1990; occasions in the northern hemisphere (e.g.,
Greer 1994). The frogs may shelter during the Langton 1989), there have not apparently been
day among the vegetation or under rocks (e.g.? any similar attempts in the southern hemisphere.
Fletcher 1889; Bell 1982; Pastel-elli 1990; Greer Consequently, the development of artificial
1994). They may overwiiiter among piles ol breeding habitat i'or the Green and Golden Hell
rocks (e.g., Bell 1982). The pond area may Frog at Homehush Bay in New South Wales is
provide suitable conditions for spawning, hatch- apparently the first such development in the
ing and tadpole growth and development (e.g., southern hemisphere (Creel- 1994; Pyke 1995).
Fletcher 1889; Caul-tice and Grigg 1975; Bell
Rased primarily on the above analysis of
1982).
habitat requirements for the Green and Golden
Bell Frog and, to a srnall extent, on other avail-
The above analysis also indicates that for a
able information on the biology of the species,
location to be likely to support a breeding
we have fol-mulated the follor\ring guidelines fbr
population of the Green and Golden Bell Frog
the development and/or management of ponds
in New South Wales it is highly desirable that it
and associated hahitat suitable for breeding by
consist of an ephemeral pond that is free of
this species (see also Pyke 1995):
predatory fish. It is likely, furthermore, that
these attributes are, in fact, mandatory for (i) Whcliever possible the underlying substrate
successful breeding. While a few instances have ola pond should be sand or crushed andor
been found where tadpoles of the Green and broken rock with clay used when this is not
Golden Bell Frog and Gamhusia have been possible;
observed in the same water body (see Table l),
it is likely, given the extent to which Gambusirr (ii) Ponds should have one end relatively deep
(i.~.a,b out 0.5 to 1 m deep at deepest point
prey on tadpoles of this species (Morgan 1996;
about 1-2 m from the deep end of the
White, unpubl. obs.), that survival of these
pond) and the other end shallow (i.e., about
tadpoles was ultimately very low. It is also
10-15 cm deep at a distance of 1 m away
possible that water bodies which initially contain
from the edge) (this design should result in
eggs and tadpoles without Gnmhria may
the water level fluctuating in accordance
subsequently become joined with water bodles
with rainl'all patterns but one part of the
that contain Gamb?rsia as overall watcr levels rise.
pond tending to rernain relatively wet when
These habitat requirements in New, South the other end dries up);
M'ales may differ from those which occur in
(iii) Water should enter a pond at its decper
Victoria. Almost all the known locations of the
end;
Green and Golden Bell Frog in New South
Wales have been disturbed by human activities (ia) Ponds may vary in size, ranging from about
such as sand mining or quarrying, and breeding 3-5 m long and 1-2 ni wide to about 5-1 0 rn
is apparently restricted to ephemeral ponds. long and 3-5 m wide (pond size should be
However, in Victoria, many known locations for adjusted to suit local conditions and to
the species have been subject to relatively little maximize the total number of ponds);
human disturbance and bl-eeding in this State
( ) Piles of rocks each with a cross-sectional
has been obscr\red in relatively permanent, non-
length of about 30-50 cm should be
fluctuating ponds as well as in ephemeral and
deposited at the deeper end of the pond,
fluctuating ponds (Gillespie, pers, comm.).
extending for 2-3 m along the edge of the
Hence, either the species has quite different
pond, for 1-2 m below maximum water
habitat requirements in New South Wales and
level and for 3-5 m above maximum water
Victoria, or the underlying and fundamental
level, and reaching a height olabout 50 cm
requirements may he associated in New South
above the maximum water level (this should
M'ales with ephemeral andor fluctuating ponds, provide diurnal and 1onge1--term shelter
and with all kinds of ponds, including permanent sites for the frogs);
ones, in Victoria.
(vi) Clumps of aquatic plants (prefer-red plant
The observation that almost all of the known genera include Tyfiha, Eleochuris. juncus
locatio~lsin New South Wales have been disturbed and othel-s such as Pt~r-agv~itesr)h ould be
by human activities, and indeed, that some are established at the deeper end of the pond.
completely artificial, suggests that it should be In some cases, Tyfiha may be viewed as
possible to develop additional artificial habitat a last resort because of likely difficulties
for the species (e.g., Greer 1994; Pyke 1995). in managing it; e.g., Pyke (1995) (these
This would presumably be difficult or impossible clnnips should provide sites for basking,
for species which require attributes oi'natural or diurnal shelter and possibly feeding by the
undisturbed habitats. frogs) ;
Australian Zoologist 30(2) 237
(vii) Areas adjacent to and between the ponds Greer, A,, 1994. Faunal lmpau Smrernent for proposed
development works at the Homebush Bay Brick Pit.
should be sown with native grass and
Prepared for Propeny Services Group.
maintained as a grassland (this should
provide feeding habitat for the frogs); Hoser, R. T., 1989. Aurtrolion Reptilcs and Frogs. First ed.
Pierson and Co: Mosman Sydney. 238 pages.
(viii) Trees should NOT be planted so as to
shade any of the pond area or to detract Langron, T. E. S. (ed), 1989. Amphibians and Roads.
from the grassland character of the area Proceedings of rhe Toad Tunnel Conference
Rendaburg, Federal Republic of Germany, 7 4J anuary
near the ponds (this should protect the
1989. ACO Polymer Products Ltd. Shefford: England.
site from shading);
202 pp.
(ix) There should be a provision to drain each
Lucas, A. H. S. and Le Souef, W. H. D., 1909. Thc A n i d
pond should this be necessary either to of Allshalh. Mammalr, Rcptils and Amphi6rans. Whitcomk
remove Gambwia or other undesirable and Tombs Ltd: Chrirtchurch. 327 pages.
aquatic species or to simulate natural
Lunney, D., Cunin, A., Ayerr, D., Cogger, H. G. and
fluctuations in water level;
Dickman, C. R., 1996. An ecological approach to
(x) The water inflow into these ponds should identifying the endangered fauna of New South Wales.
be kept as clean and free of added nutrients Pac. Comm. Biol. In press.
as possible. In particular, fertilizer, Moore, J. A,, 1961. Frogs of eastern New South Wales. Bull
herbicide, pesticide, and other chemical Amn. Mu. Naf. Hirl. 121: 149-386.
ueatment should not be used within the
Morgan, L. and Buttemer, W. A,, 1996. Predation by the
catchments of these frog breeding ponds.
"on-native fish. Gambwia holbrooki on small Litmio ourea
and L. denlato tadpoles. Allst. 2001. 30(2): 14349.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Pastorelli, J. (ed), 1990. Urban WiIdIife ojNew Srmth Wales.
The early stages of this research were funded
Angus and Robertson: Sydney.
by Arthur White. Recent collaborative research
was also supported by the Australian Museum Pyke, G. H., 1995. Fauna lrnpact Statement far proposed
development work at The Homebush Bay Develop-
and the Olympic Co-ordination Authority. Helpful
ment Area, excluding the Brickpit. Prepared for Olympic
comments on earlier drafts of this paper have Co-ordination Authority.
been made by Allen Greer and Will Osborne.
Sohl, R. R. and Rohlf, F. J., 1981. Biomet~S. econd edition.
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Counice, G. P. and Grigg, G. C., 1975. A laxonomic revision
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Nm S d W ales. 4: 35747. Whire, A. W., 1995. The Green and Golden Bell Fmg. Frog
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232 Australian Zoologist 30(2) May 1996
