Table Of Content5
DEVELOPING RESPONSE TACTICS
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Previous chapters described the importance of assessing the hazards and identify-
ing the potential credible incidents at the facility before any emergency. Chapter
4 provided guidance for determining a facility's overall emergency response
strategy and approach. With this determined, specific tactical considerations can
be given to particular hazards. This chapter discusses response tactics for primary
industrial hazards such as fire, explosions, and hazardous materials release. A
similar approach to developing tactics can be used for medical, rescue, and natural
hazards.
To develop effective response tactics, the planner must assess and consider
several general factors for each credible incident:
• Processes—pressure, temperature, chemical reactions.
• Usage—what form the material is in (solid, liquid, or gas), what quantities
are involved.
• Material Transfer—the movement of materials throughout the system,
including on-site tanker and rail car deliveries, loading and unloading fixed
tanks, compressed gas, and pipelines.
• Storage—any materials needing isolation or segregation, including proper
containment, with emphasis on compatibility and quantities.
With a complete understanding of the facility's credible incidents including
the above factors, the planner can develop safe tactics and actions for mitigating
an incident.
Tactics are the actions taken to achieve desired goals. They can be defensive
(containing the problem from spreading and limiting the loss, but not eliminating
it), offensive (aggressively attacking the problem at its source), or a combination
of each (such as first containing the problem then moving in to mitigate).
Emergency planners should determine whether the risk associated with a particu-
lar tactic is worth the potential benefit. History shows that without a plan for clear
and effective tactics, emergency responders will face unnecessary risk. To lend
credence to this statement, consider that 51% of all deaths that occur during rescue
operations are those of the would-be rescuers. Many times these deaths result from
an inadequate tactical plan.
The following incident demonstrates the effects of not having proper emer-
gency response tactics and decisions:
Three members of an industrial fire brigade and two other employees died
during a fire at a warehouse in 1980. Automatic sprinklers protected the storage
building, which measured 46 by 72 feet. The warehouse stored baled scrap paper
approximately 15 feet high. Nearby welding and grinding operations started a fire,
which was subsequently discovered by an employee who then notified the plant fire
brigade.
Arriving members of an industrial fire department found the building heavily
charged with smoke and sprinklers operating at the ceiling. They entered the building
with hose lines to find the seat of the fire. One crew of firefighters was approximately
12 feet inside the building when bales of paper fell, trapping two of them. Other
firefighters and employees outside the building rushed in to assist. A second collapse
trapped seven would-be rescuers. By the time the incident was over, two employees
and three industrial firefighters were dead due to the collapsing bales and resulting
suffocation. Seven other fire brigade members were injured in the incident.
This case illustrates why proper tactics are essential. If the responders had
thought about their actions, they might have identified the problem of the paper
bales collapsing under the weight of water. Effective planning will allow other
life-saving factors to be considered.
The remainder of this chapter is divided into discussion of tactics for fire and
for hazardous materials releases. Many of the tactical considerations discussed for
one hazard may apply to others; however, some differences exist. As much as
possible, an incident commander (IC) should follow common tactics consistently
and consider differences as applicable.
5.2. PRINCIPLES OF RESPONDING TO FIRES
Several issues that planners need to consider when developing tactics for the
identified credible fire scenarios include the capabilities of the facility's own fire
response organization, and the integration between on-site fire brigades and
off-site fire departments.
5.2.7. Plant Fire Response Organization
5.2.7.7. Fire-Fighting Brigade
The planner should first review the capability of the facility's fire brigade. The two
most common types of brigades are an incipient fire brigade and an interior
structural fire brigade, both described under OSHA regulations 29 CFR
1910.156 [2].
The key tactical difference between the two brigade types is that, operation-
ally, an incipient brigade does not require personal protective clothing and it
strictly adheres to extinguishing small incipient (beginning) stage fires by using
portable fire extinguishers or hose lines no larger than 1.5 inches in diameter. The
interior structural fire brigade uses approved fire-fighter protective clothing
(bunker gear) and receives more extensive training in fire-fighting techniques,
such as the use of extinguishing equipment including larger hose lines, foam, and
other special extinguishing agents.
5.2.7.2. Equipment
Another issue affecting the development of fire response tactics is the on-site
availability of personal protective equipment (PPE) including self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA), bunker gear, gloves, boots, helmet, and other
equipment, such as portable monitoring devices, fire apparatus, hoses, nozzles,
foam, foam eductors, and nozzles. Chapter 7 provides an in-depth discussion of
fire-fighting and personal protective equipment.
5.2.7.3. Personnel Availability
A major consideration is the number of trained personnel available at any time.
For example, response brigade members must be able to leave their normal duty
stations, such as boilers or intricate chemical processes, at all times. A sufficient
number of fire brigade members are needed for response activities such as rescue,
foam operations, securing utilities, stretching lines, forcible entry, ventilating, and
protecting unaffected property and equipment.
5.2.2. Integration ofOn-Site Fire Brigades and Off-Site Departments
When contemplating using outside response agencies, planners should evaluate
their response time, availability, capability to recognize and handle unusual
hazards and critical processes, and ability to participate in drills.
Many issues can be resolved through pre-incident planning, integrated train-
ing, and periodic drills and exercises.
Planners should carefully determine and describe when help from outside fire
departments is needed and how it is requested. There are many examples when
delayed alarms contributed to large industrial fire losses. Using emergency action
levels may help avoid unnecessary calls while ensuring prompt completion of
necessary notifications. A version of the CCPS emergency action levels, discussed
in Chapter 4, and modified for use in fires, can guide facility decision makers in
determining when to call for outside assistance.
TABLE 5.1
Sample Fire Emergency Action Levels
Level Act/on
Localized fire Localized effect zone, limited to a single plant area (e.g., small fires, pump
fires, trash fires). This could be handled by either an incipient fire brigade or a
structural fire brigade.
Major fire Medium effect zone, limited to site boundaries (e.g., major fire, chemical fire,
small explosion). An incipient fire brigade could not handle this. This fire may
be handled by a properly equipped and trained interior structural fire brigade
with or without outside responders.
Catastrophic fire Large effect zone, off-site effects on the surrounding community (e.g., major
explosion, large chemical fire). This fire must be handled with all available
trained personnel including site brigade and outside agencies.
5.2.3. Response Tactics
Emergency response, like most other activities, involves proper decision making
followed by effective implementation, so advance planning is essential.
In general, making decisions in normal, day-to-day operational situations
involves three main factors:
• Quantity: Resource limitations always exist (budget, personnel, logistics,
information limitations, etc.),
• Quality: Making decisions under stress with limited information is diffi-
cult. People strive to make correct, effective, quality decisions, and
• Time: Every decision has deadlines (the time available to make a decision
is compressed).
The impact of these decision factors—quantity, quality, and time—increase
during emergencies. Proper planning prior to emergencies will help ensure that
adequate resources are available when needed. Typically, relatively little time is
available to make decisions, and the quality of the decision and its implementation
can have a very serious effect on human safety and environmental protection.
5.2.3.7. Incident Pre-Plans
The term pre-planning describes the actual process of developing fire response
tactics. A fire pre-plan provides emergency first responders an inventory of
essential information necessary for developing tactical response plans at the outset
of the emergency. Pre-plans can take many shapes and should be part of the
facility's emergency response plan. They can cover different hazards including fire
and chemical incidents (for example, choosing when fixed manual systems should
be integrated).
Table 5.2 describes the information that can be included in a pre-plan.
TABLE 5.2
Sample Information for Pre-Plans
Information Description
GENERAL
Facility identification Facility name (use common name)
Facility plot plan Is it current?
Date Date the information is gathered
Number of levels in Number of floors from ground floor up (or height if more appropriate)
structures
Structure dimensions Estimate the overall size of building or open structure.
People in area during day Typical number of people that can be found in the area during the
and night day and night time. Any special needs people?
Included areas Describe the area(s) that are associated with building/facility/area.
Sub levels Number of below ground levels
Facility activity What activities are taking place in the area?
STRUCTURE
Construction type What is the structure made of?
Exterior doors, type and What are outer doors made of, how many, and how do they work?
number
Elevators/lifts State if structure has elevators and, if so, where.
Stairway location State where stairs are located and what they are made of.
construction
Interior wall construction What are the walls inside structure made of?
Exits illuminated? Are the exits illuminated and do they have back-up power (battery)?
Corridor widths/height How wide are the corridors and aisles and how high are both?
PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Tanks/vessels Number of tanks/vessels and size in gallons
Tank/vessel construction What is each tank/vessel made of, pressure rating, relief settings,
insulation?
Contents What product does it contain and quantity?
Marking system What marking system is used on the tank (e.g., NFPA 704)?
Dikes and berms What are the dikes and berms made of and how much product will it
hold? Are there drains in the diked area? Can drains be shut?
Sprinklers Sprinkled area?
Table continues on page 88.
TABLE 5.2
Sample Information for Pre-Plans (continued)
Information Description
PROCESS EQUIPMENT (continued)
Chemical shutoffs Locations
Drainage description Where will liquids running from the area go?
SUPPRESSION
Foam system Do tanks have foam or subsurface system?
Water monitor Is tank area protected by water monitor system? Can foam be used in
the system?
UTILITIES
Heating type What type of heat is used? What is the fuel source?
Electrical shutoff location Where are the panel boxes or main shutoffs and what type breakers,
fuses?
Gas shutoffs locations If gas is used in the area, where are the shutoffs?
Water shutoffs locations Where are the water shutoffs?
PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Fire alarm type Does the fire alarm sound only in the area or does it go off some
where else?
Fire detection type State type of alarm in area, if any.
Sprinkler type Does system cover entire area or just sections?
Sprinkler wet or dry Is the system wet or dry? What are the sprinkler heads rated for?
Sprinkler fire department Where is the fire department connection for the sprinkler system? On
connection the outside of any structure? Design pressure?
Portable extinguishers Number and location
Portable extinguisher: type State what types of extinguishers are maintained in area.
Stand pipe fire department Does the area have a standpipe system? If so where is it located and
connection where is the fire department connection? Size and thread?
Stand pipe hose diameter Does the standpipe system have fire hose stations? If so, what size is
the hose?
Stand pipe wet or dry Is the system wet or dry?
Nearest hydrant Where is the nearest hydrant?
Secondary water source Where would the secondary water source be found?
Other protection systems List any other fire protection systems in area.
Information Description
INSTRUMENTATION
Inventory devices Are there high-level alarms on tanks?
Leak detectors Are there any leak detectors in the diked area or on tanks?
RESPONSE CONSIDERATIONS
Chemicals in area What chemicals are stored or used in the area?
Other "in-process" What chemicals are produced during the process, if any?
chemicals
Process description Briefly describe the type of process taking place in area?
List of credible incidents Taken from studies of what can go wrong.
Summary of hazards Give a brief statement or overview of hazards in area.
Nearby hazards List hazards that are nearby such as chemical storage, other processes
taking place in building nearby.
Response considerations Try to think of any information that a fire department or other
emergency responders will need to know if a problem were to occur,
such as any special mitigation techniques or actions, how would they
get to the area, or whether they would need special tools.
Other comments This area is for any additional information.
Developing a pre-plan provides an opportunity for plant emergency personnel
and outside responders to meet, discuss, and evaluate each other's capabilities and
limitations. To ensure effectiveness and to determine information accuracy,
facilities should test a pre-plan by conducting real-time drills. As with all emer-
gency planning documents, personnel must update a pre-plan, as the plant and its
response capabilities change, or at least annually.
5.2.3.2. Initial Assessment and Size-Up
The first step in dealing with a fire or other incidents is the initial assessment and
size-up, which is a phrase that describes the first responders5 observations upon
arrival at the scene. It deals with the first few critical minutes when understanding
the situation is essential to determine the actions needed to contain and control
the emergency safely. Responders should be sure to communicate with plant
personnel to obtain information in order to size up, or evaluate the extent of an
emergency and to help responders recognize the potentials for fire spread and the
need for outside help.
During the first few minutes of a fire, response personnel must make several
decisions, such as where to place the first hose line, who and when to evacuate,
and to where. Responders must quickly make decisions based on available
information, since the decisions made during the first few minutes may determine
the outcome hours later.
A useful method, known as LOCATE (Figure 5.1), describes the issues
responders need to consider during their initial assessment and size-up.
Who is in jeopardy and what needs to be done to protect
emergency responders, employees, and neighbors?
What is inside the buildings, tanks, pipes, and other s
tructures?
What is the size, height, type of material (steel, aluminum,
glass, etc.) used in the building?
What activities are occurring in the immediate area and what
affect do they have on the fire and vice versa? Do nearby
chemical operations need protection?
What tiem of day is it? What season and weather conditions
are germane ? How long has it been burning ? How long before
any corrective actions can be taken?
What is exposed to the fire that needs protection, such as people,
buidings, nearby areas, the environment (e.g.,protection from
contaminated fire water runoff) ?
FIGURE 5.1. LOCATE. Note: The initial responders must consider several factors upon arrival at the
scene. By applying LOCATE factors, responders can develop a good tactical plan. Another useful
technique, DECIDE, is described in Section 5.3.2 on page 93.
5.2.3.3. Managing the Incident
As discussed previously, managing and decision-making during an emergency are
obviously much different from normal operations because decisions must be made
quickly without complete information. Well-trained first responders and a proper
chain of command will allow for effectively managing the incident.
As a result of major wild land fires during the early 1970s, fire and other
emergency services developed a management system, commonly referred to as the
incident command system (ICS). The ICS creates a clear chain of command so that
responders report to one supervisor. An ICS allows for an appropriate span of
control enabling the incident commander (IC) to divide large operations into
smaller, more manageable parts. The system enables the IC to develop a tailored
response to each incident by using only necessary resources to bring the incident
to a safe conclusion.
The ICS is a major component for controlling and mitigating any type of
emergency. Chapter 11 provides a more fully developed explanation of the ICS.
5.2.3.4. Response Priorities
The tactical priorities for fire fighting should be as follows:
1. Safety of employees and the firefighters,
2. Preventing the fire from spreading,
3. Protecting the environment, and
4. Protecting the property itself.
The first priority is to protect the employees by evacuating or rescuing
endangered people and by determining whether the area is safe for responders to
enter; next, to choose a defensive plan to keep the fire from spreading. In taking
an offensive approach, an IC must not forget the first priority—safety of people.
The IC should also try to protect the environment from fire water runoff, smoke,
and hazardous gases (e.g., can temporary dikes be built by responders? will fire
water react with nearby chemicals?). An offensive plan can minimize the damage
since crews will enter the area and extinguish the fire.
5.2.3.5. Fire Suppression
The basic strategy in firefighting is to contain and extinguish the fire. Although
this strategy sounds quite simple, deciding where and how to cut off the spreading
fire during heavy smoke conditions is not a simple decision. The possible need to
rescue employees further complicates the operation. Some issues to consider
during fire suppression include:
• Communication—Do proper communications exist between the IC and
fire fighters during the response? Do fire fighters continually provide
updates so that the IC can effectively evaluate the tactical plan?
• Location and Extent—Where is the seat of the fire and how far has it
spread from the area of origin? Is the area safe to enter? Are water attack
lines large enough to control the fire? Are back-up lines in place to protect
the attack crews? Can heavy fire streams protect exposures?
• Apparatus and Equipment—Is there adequate equipment, such as attack
lines, water supply lines, and master stream devices to handle the incident?
Are there tools to perform forced entry and ventilation? Is enough foam
available to use in case of a flammable liquid fire? Is there proper equipment
to apply foam? Is it the right type of foam to handle the problem—is it a
hydrocarbon-based fire or a polar-solvent (alcohol) fire? Are apparatus and
personnel correctly positioned?
• Water—How accessible are the water sources to the scene? Has the IC
evaluated the water flow to determine whether there are adequate capacity
and pressure on-site to meet the suppression needs? Is there a secondary
water source? What areas can fire water run-off adversely affect? Is the
weight of the water on the structure a concern? Are materials water reactive?
• Fuel—Shut off supply of fuel if possible.
5.3. HAZARDOUSMATERIALS
5.3.1. Hazardous Materials Response Regulations
While many of the tactical considerations discussed for fire fighting apply to
hazardous material (Hazmat) situations, some differences exist. A primary con-
sideration in developing a capability to respond to Hazmat situations is OSHA's
Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response regulation, 29 CFR
1910.120 [1], commonly referred to as HAZWOPER. This regulation is more
encompassing and stringent in defining levels of response capabilities than
OSHA3S fire brigade regulation.
OSHA developed the HAZWOPER regulation to address an estimated
13,600 spills of hazardous chemicals that occur annually inside fixed industrial
facilities. In terms of emergency response activities, it requires employers to have
training, protective gear, cleanup equipment and supplies, and emergency plans
in place before a spill occurs. It outlines duties and responsibilities of spill response
teams in the private and public sector. The OSHA rule requires that all employees
who will be responding to and/or working at chemical emergency incidents be
provided with training. Specifically, OSHA designated five levels of response
training based on duties during a Hazmat event:
First Responder Awareness Level,
First Responder Operations Level,
Hazardous Materials Technician,
Hazardous Materials Specialist, and
On-Scene Incident Commander.
Table 5.3 summarizes the duties of each responder.
