Table Of ContentG j O M M j J R
S U R M W E R
P O L L ir n o N
G I W M M i m
S U M M E R
P O L L U T I O N
Edited by
David H .F. Liu
Bela G. Liptak
Paul A. Bouts
Special Consultant
|jg| LEWIS PUBLISHERS
i™ Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Groundwater and surface water pollution / edited by David H.F. Liu, Bela G. Liptak.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56670-511-8 (alk paper)
1. Groundwater—Pollution. 2. Groundwater flow. 3. Groundwater—Purification.
4. Runoff—Management. I. Liu, David H. F. II. Liptak Bela G..
TD426 .G7277 1999
628.F68—dc21 99-055330
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Preface
Dr. David H.F. Liu passed away prior to the preparation of this book.
He will be long remembered by his coworkers,
and the readers of this book will carry his memory into the 21st Century.
Engineers respond to the needs of society with technical It is absolutely necessary to bring up a new generation
innovations. Their tools are the basic sciences. Some en which no longer shares our deeply rooted subconscious
gineers might end up working on these tools instead of belief in continuous growth: a new generation which no
working with them. Environmental engineers are in a priv longer desires the forever increasing consumption of space,
ileged and challenging position, because their tools are the raw materials, and energy.
totality of man’s scientific knowledge, and their target is It is also necessary to realize that, while as individuals
nothing less than human survival through making man’s we might not be able to think in longer terms than cen
peace with nature. turies, as a society we must. This can and must be achieved
by developing rules and regulations which are appropri
ate to the time-frame of the processes which we control
The Condition of the Environment
or influence. The half-life of plutonium is 24,000 years,
To the best of our knowledge today, life in the universe the replacement of the water in the deep oceans takes 1000
exists only in a 10-mile-thick layer on the 200-million- years. For us it is difficult to be concerned about the con
square-mile surface of this planet. During the 5 million sequences of our actions, if those consequences will take
years of human existence, we lived in this thin crust of centuries or millennia to evolve. Therefore, it is essential
earth, air, and water. Initially man relied only on inex that we develop both an educational system and a body
haustible resources. The planet appeared to be without of law which would protect our descendants from our own
limits and the laws of nature directed our evolution. Later shortsightedness.
we started to supplement our muscle power with ex Protecting life on this planet will give the coming gen
haustible energy sources (coal, oil, uranium) and to sub erations a unifying common purpose. The healing of en
stitute the routine functions of our brains by machines. As vironmental ills will necessitate changes in our subcon
a result, in some respects we have “conquered nature” and scious and in our value system. Once these changes have
today we are directing our own evolution. Today, our chil occurred, they will not only guarantee human survival, but
dren grow up in man-made environments; virtual reality will also help in overcoming human divisions and thereby
or cyberspace is more familiar to them than the open spaces change human history.
of meadows.
While our role and power have changed, our conscious The Condition of the Waters
ness did not. Subconsciously we still consider the planet
inexhaustible and we are still incapable of thinking in time In the natural life cycle of the water bodies (Figure 1), the
frames which exceed a few lifetimes. These human limi sun provides the energy source for plant life (algae), which
tations hold risks, not only for the planet, nor even for life produces oxygen while converting the inorganic molecules
on this planet, but for our species. Therefore, it is neces into larger organic ones. The animal life obtains its mus
sary to pay attention not only to our physical environment cle energy (heat) by consuming these molecules and by also
but also to our cultural and spiritual environment. consuming the dissolved oxygen content of the water.
PREFACE
American waterways generally improved during the last
decades, while on the global scale water quality has dete
riorated.
Water availability has worsened since the first edition
of this handbook. In the U.S. the daily withdrawal rate is
about 2,000 gallons per person, which represents roughly
one-third of the total daily runoff. The bulk of this water
is used by agriculture and industry. The average daily wa
ter consumption per household is about 1000 gallons and,
on the East Coast, the daily cost of that water is $2-$3.
As some 60% of the discharged pollutants (sewage, in
dustrial waste, fertilizers, pesticides, leachings from land
fills and mines) reenter the water supplies, there is a direct
relationship between the quality and cost of supply water
and the degree of waste treatment in the upstream regions.
There seems to be some evidence that the residual chlo
rine from an upstream wastewater treatment plant can
combine in the receiving waters with industrial wastes to
form carcinogenic chlorinated hydrocarbons, which can
enter the drinking water supplies downstream. Toxic
chemicals from the water can be further concentrated
through the food chain. Some believe that the gradual poi
soning of the environment is responsible for cancer, AIDS,
and other forms of immune deficiency and self-destructive
diseases.
While the overall quality of the waterways has im
proved in the U.S., worldwide the opposite occurred. This
is caused not only by overpopulation, but also by ocean
dumping of sludge, toxins, and nuclear waste, as well as
FIG. 1 The natural life cycle.
by oil leaks from off-shore oil platforms. We do not yet
fully understand the likely consequences, but we can be
When a town or industry discharges additional organic certain that the ability of the oceans to withstand and ab
material into the waters (which nature intended to be dis sorb pollutants is not unlimited and, therefore, interna
posed of as fertilizer on land), the natural balance is up tional regulations of these discharges is essential. In terms
set. The organic effluent acts as a fertilizer, therefore the of international regulations, we are just beginning to de
algae overpopulates and eventually blocks the trans velop the required new body of law.
parency of the water. When the water becomes opaque, Protecting the global environment and life on this planet
the ultraviolet rays of the sun can no longer penetrate it. must become a single-minded, unifying goal for all of us.
This cuts off the algae from its energy source and it dies. The struggle will overshadow our differences, will give
The bacteria try to protect the life cycle in the water by meaning and purpose to our lives and, if we succeed, it
attempting to break down the excess organic material (in will mean survival for our children and the generations to
cluding the dead body cells of the algae), but the bacteria come.
require oxygen for the digestion process. As the algae is
no longer producing fresh oxygen, the dissolved oxygen Bela G. Liptak
content of the water drops, and when it reaches zero, all
animals suffocate. At that point the living water body has
been converted into an open sewer.
In the U.S., the setting of water quality standards and
the regulation of discharges have been based on the “as
similative capacity” of the receiving waters (a kind of pol
lution dilution approach), which allows discharges into as
yet unpolluted waterways. The Water Pollution Act of
1972 would have temporarily required industry to apply
the “best practicable” and “best available” treatments of
waste emissions and aimed for zero discharge by 1985.
While this last goal has not been reached, the condition of
Contributors
Yong S. Chae Bela 6. Liptak
AB, MS, PhD, PE; Professor and Chairman, ME, MME, PE; Process Control and Safety Consultant,
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University President, Liptak Associates, P.P.
Kent Keqiang Mao
Ahmed Hamidi
BSCE, MSCE, PhDCE, PE; President,
PhD, PE, PH, CGWP; Vice President,
North America Industrial Investment Co., Ltd.
Sadat Associates, Inc.
David H.F. Liu
PhD, ChE; Principal Scientist, J.T. Baker, Inc. a division
of Procter &c Gamble
Contents
Groundwater and Surface Water Pollution 1
1
Principles of Groundwater Flow 5
1.1 Groundwater and Aquifers 5
1.2 Fundamental Equations of Groundwater Flow 10
1.3 Confined Aquifers 12
1.4 Unconfined Aquifers 16
1.5 Combined Confined and Unconfined Flow 19
C
M Hydraulics of Wells 21
2.1 Two-dimensional Problems 21
2.2 Nonsteady (Transient) Flow 26
2.3 Determining Aquifer Characteristics 32
2.4 Design Considerations 43
2.5 Interface Flow 46
C
O Principles of Groundwater Contamination 48
3.1 Causes and Sources of Contamination 48
3.2 Fate of Contaminants in Groundwater 52
3.3 Transport of Contaminants in Groundwater 62
4
Groundwater Investigation and Monitoring 67
4.1 Initial Site Assessment 67
4.2 Subsurface Site Investigation 75
