Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

344 Pages·2004·1.46 MB·English

by  Robert E. Krebs

Groundbreaking
Scientific Experiments,
Inventions, and
Discoveries of the
Middle Ages and the
Renaissance
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Groundbreaking
Scientific Experiments,
Inventions, and
Discoveries of the
Middle Ages and the
Renaissance
R E. K
OBERT REBS
Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions
and Discoveries through the Ages
Robert E. Krebs, Series Adviser
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut •London
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Krebs, Robert E., 1922–
Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions and discoveries
of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance / Robert E. Krebs.
p. cm.––(Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions and
discoveries through the ages)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0–313–32433–6 (alk. paper)
1. Science, Medieval. 2. Science, Renaissance. 3. Technology––
History. I. Title. II. Series.
Q124.97.K73 2004
509.4´0902––dc22 2003060075
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright © 2004 by Robert E. Krebs
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003060075
ISBN: 0–313–32433–6
First published in 2004
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.greenwood.com
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this book complies with the
Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984).
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my mother, Anna E. Krebs, who inspired me to seek
my own drummer

Contents
List of Figures ix
Series Foreword xi
Introduction xv
1. Astronomy 1
2. Geography and Exploration 33
3. The Biological Sciences: Botany and Zoology 67
4. Medicine, Disease, and Health 85
5. Mathematics 123
6. Physics and Chemistry 155
7. Inventions and Innovations 189
8. Weapons and War 243
Glossary 291
Selected Bibliography 297
Name Index 303
Subject Index 309

List of Figures
1.1 Stonehenge 2
1.2 Aristotle’s Spherical Crystal “Shells” of the Universe 6
1.3 Ptolemy’s Universe 8
1.4 Early Weight-Driven Clock 11
1.5 Chinese Sighting Tube 11
1.6 Indian Observatory 15
1.7 Egyptian Clock Sticks 16
1.8 Kepler’s Law of Areas 27
2.1 T-O Maps 56
2.2 Cylindrical Projection 61
2.3 Mercator Projection 63
3.1 Aristotle’s Ladder of Life 69
3.2 Monocots vs. Dicots 73
4.1 A Trephined Skull 86
5.1 Conic Sections 126
5.2 Evolution of Arabic Numerals 130
5.3 Ancient Chinese and Arabic Numerals 138
5.4 Mayan Numerals 141
5.5 Stevin’s Equilibrium Demonstration 153
6.1 Kepler’s Law of Areas 164
6.2 Earth’s Magnetic Poles 167
6.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum 169
6.4 Four Elements of Alchemy 179