Table Of ContentGreenhouse
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Climate Control w
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an integrated approach o p ri
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construction
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editors
J.C. Bakker
G.P.A. Bot
H. Challa
N.J. Van de Braak
Wageningen Academic
P u b l i s h e r s
GREENHOUSE CLIMATE CONTROL
GREENHOUSE
CLIMATE CONTROL
an integrated approach
EDITORS
J.C. Bakker
G.P.A. Bot
H. Challa
N.J. Van de Braak
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ISBN: 978-90-74134-17-0 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are
e-ISBN: 978-90-8686-501-7 reserved, whether the whole or part of the material
DOI: 10.3920/978-90-8686-501-7 is concerned. Nothing from this publication may be
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Keywords: system or published in any form or in any manner,
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Preface
At the end of the seventies, following the energy crisis, the focus on energy saving in greenhouse culti-
vation brought four young scientists from different disciplines together: Gerard Bot (physics), Hugo
Challa (plant physiology), Alexander Udink ten Cate (control engineering) and Jan van de Vooren
(horticulture). Their cooperation on greenhouse climate and its control sowed the seeds for a re-
search programme initiated in the eighties and named “Greenhouse climate control of the nineties”.
About twenty researchers of various disciplines, who came from different departments of Wagenin-
gen Agricultural University, DLO-institutes and research stations in The Netherlands, participated in
the programme.
Through annual plenary meetings, frequent smaller meetings and active participation of grad-
uate and PhD students, the contours of a new, scientifically based, integrated approach towards
climate control became visible, and scientists of various disciplines learned to understand each
other’s language.
In the mean time, related activities took place in various other countries, in particular in France,
Germany, Israel, Japan, the UK and the USA. Research groups formed informal networks which have
stimulated progress and the exchange of concepts, methods and views considerably. The present
book is the result of many years of intensive cooperation among the researchers who were directly
involved in the earlier mentioned programme, of international contacts and of the interaction with
the advanced Dutch greenhouse industry and with climate control equipment manufacturers.
We believe that the views and the knowledge which have been gathered and generated within
the frame work of this programme is of major relevance to all those working in the field of green-
house cultivation, especially in relation to the greenhouse climate. We hope and expect that this
book will be appreciated by a broad readership and that it will stimulate the scientific approach to-
wards various aspects of greenhouse climate. In addition, we hope that this publication will
stimulate interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary cooperation among scientists over the world,
which, in our opinion, is of great importance to deal adequately with the complex problems of today
and tomorrow.
This book has been written over a period of three years, during which major changes took place
in the organisations of most of the authors and editors. This has made the task of all people concern-
ed substantially more arduous. We are very grateful for the excellent cooperation and the valuable
contributions of all participants, as well as the support of their organisations. This is also true for the
international referees, who dealt with their important task within the narrow time constraints
which had to be respected.
The Editors
Greenhouse Climate Control V
Contents
Preface V
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Aim and approach of this book 1
1.2 The history of greenhouse cultivation 3
1.3 The greenhouse industry in The Netherlands 7
1.3.1 International context 7
1.3.2 Socio-economic importance 8
1.3.3 Structure of production and sales 9
1.3.4 Costs and returns 10
1.3.5 Business development 11
References 13
2 Crop growth 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Short-term crop responses 16
2.2.1 CO uptake by the crop 16
2
2.2.1.1 Introduction 16
2.2.1.2 Components of leaf photosynthesis 17
2.2.1.3 Responses of leaf photosynthesis 20
2.2.1.4 Models of leaf photosynthesis 23
2.2.1.5 Light interception by the canopy 24
2.2.1.6 Responses of canopy photosynthesis 26
2.2.1.7 Crop respiration 34
2.2.1.8 Conclusions 34
2.2.2 Water balance 35
2.2.2.1 Introduction 35
2.2.2.2 The status of water in the plant 36
2.2.2.3 Flow and distribution of water in the plant 38
2.2.2.4 Variation in water status in relation to greenhouse climatic factors 41
2.2.2.5 The effect of plant–water relations on some physiological processes 46
2.2.3 Interaction between CO uptake and water loss 51
2
2.2.3.1 Introduction 51
2.2.3.2 Stomatal and boundary layer conductance 51
2.2.3.3 Stomatal conductance and CO uptake 54
2
2.2.3.4 Response of stomata to water 56
Greenhouse Climate Control VII
Contents
2.2.3.5 Effect of water on leaf photosynthesis 58
2.2.3.6 Effect of the boundary layer 60
2.2.3.7 Interaction at the crop level 60
2.2.3.8 Summary 62
2.3 Long-term crop responses 62
2.3.1 Crop growth and development 62
2.3.1.1 Introduction 62
2.3.1.2 Crop growth 63
2.3.1.3 Developmental processes 76
2.3.2 Biomass partitioning in plants 84
2.3.2.1 Introduction 84
2.3.2.2 General principles of the regulation of biomass partitioning 85
2.3.2.3 Biomass partitioning among plant organs 86
2.3.2.4 Tools to control biomass partitioning in fruit vegetables 91
2.3.3 Product quality 92
2.3.3.1 Introduction 92
2.3.3.2 Effects of light on product quality 93
2.3.3.3 Effects of temperature on product quality 95
2.3.3.4 Effects of humidity on product quality 96
2.3.3.5 Effects of CO on product quality 97
2
2.3.3.6 Concluding remarks 97
2.4 Synthesis 97
References 100
List of symbols and abbreviations 121
3 Physics of greenhouse climate 125
3.1 Introduction 125
3.2 Transport phenomena 125
3.2.1 Basic principles 125
3.2.2 Transport mechanisms 127
3.2.3 Conduction (diffusion) 127
3.2.4 Advection and convection 128
3.2.5 Simultaneous heat and mass transfer 131
3.2.6 Radiation 132
3.2.6.1 Introduction 132
3.2.6.2 Emittance and Stefan-Boltzmann law 132
3.2.6.3 Absorption, reflection and transmission 133
3.2.6.4 Radiative energy exchange between surfaces 133
3.3 Energy balance 135
3.3.1 Introduction 135
3.3.2 Solar radiation 136
VIII Greenhouse Climate Control
Contents
3.3.3 Thermal radiation exchange 137
3.3.4 Ventilation 137
3.3.5 Convective exchange 139
3.3.5.1 Greenhouse cover 139
3.3.5.2 Heating pipes 140
3.3.5.3 The crop 140
3.3.5.4 The soil 140
3.3.6 Conductive exchange 140
3.4 Vapour balance 141
3.4.1 Introduction 141
3.4.2 Definitions 142
3.4.3 Transpiration 142
3.4.3.1 Evaporation from a wet surface 142
3.4.3.2 Transpiration from a leaf surface 144
3.4.3.3 Transpiration from a canopy 144
3.4.3.4 Transpiration of a greenhouse crop 145
3.4.4 Condensation 147
3.4.5 Ventilation 147
3.4.6 Vapour concentration of ambient air 148
3.4.7 Conclusion 150
3.5 Carbon dioxide balance 151
3.5.1 Introduction 151
3.5.2 Some basic features of carbon dioxide 151
3.5.3 CO in greenhouses 151
2
3.5.4 CO balance 153
2
3.6 Synthesis 154
References 157
List of symbols and abbreviations 158
4 Greenhouse construction and equipment 161
4.1 Introduction 161
4.2 Construction 162
4.2.1 Introduction 162
4.2.2 The requirement for standardisation 162
4.2.3 Single glass greenhouses 163
4.2.4 Insulating cover materials 166
4.2.5 Ventilation windows 166
4.2.6 Plastic film greenhouses and tunnels 169
4.3 Heating equipment 171
4.3.1 Requirements 171
Greenhouse Climate Control IX
