Glossary of Biotechnology Terms, Fourth Edition (Glossary of Biotechnology & Nanobiotechnology Terms)

396 Pages·2005·11.181 MB·English

by  Kimball Nill

GLOSSARY OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY and
nanobiotechnology
TER MS
FOURTH edition
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
GLOSSARY OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY and
nanobiotechnology
TER MS
FOURTH edition
Kimball Nill
Boca Raton London New York
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nill, Kimball R.
Glossary of biotechnology and nanobiotechnology terms / Kimball R. Nill.-- 4th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-8493-6609-7 (alk. paper)
1. Biotechnology--Dictionaries. I. Title.
TP248.16.F54 2005
660.6'03--dc22 2005051082
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Dedication
To my wife, Janet J. Nill
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Preface
I began writing this book as a hobby, more than a decade ago, when it became obvious to me that
the various specialists working in the then-emerging field of biotechnology (e.g., geneticists,
chemists, molecular biologists, intellectual property attorneys, marketers, etc.) were often having
difficulty simply understanding the terms utilized by their colleagues in their respective fields.
Subsequently, a number of organizations with various motivations have stated their concerns
about agricultural biotechnology. In my experience, the level of concern inevitably diminishes
when such people understand the terms used to discuss a given topic.
Therefore, when similar organizations recently began to assert safety concerns about the now-
emerging field of nanotechnology, I added to this book those of the “nanotech” terms that are
relevant to biotechnology.
I have attempted to write definitions in this book employing words that would enable the reader
to conceptualize the idea embodied in the term, without the necessity of holding advanced degrees
in biochemistry or molecular biology. In order to accomplish this, however, I had to make certain
compromises between scientific rigor and definitions based on analogy, with the inherent possibility
of oversimplification.
I offer this work in good faith, and in the hope that it will assist individuals who seek to gain
some understanding of the terminology as it is currently used. However, the reader should be
aware that the fields of biotechnology and bionanotechnology are rapidly expanding and evolving:
New terms are entering the nomenclature at a rapid pace. In fact, the meaning(s) of some of the
newest terms will undoubtedly be expanded or contracted as the technologies further develop.
Although I have endeavored to be as accurate as possible, this work is meant to provide a general
introduction rather than to be absolute and legally definitive.
Kimball R. Nill
Technical Issues Director
American Soybean Association
St. Louis, Missouri
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About the Author
Kimball Nill is Technical Issues Director of the American Soybean Association’s International
Marketing Division, and is responsible for detecting emerging technology-related issues that could
impact U.S. soybean exports and proactively dealing with those threats and opportunities.
Mr. Nill holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from North Dakota State University and a
master’s degree in business administration from the Wharton Business School at the University of
Pennsylvania. He has authored numerous papers and articles on various aspects of the marketing
of agricultural biotechnology products for U.S. and European journals and other publications.
Prior to joining the ASA in 1996, Mr. Nill was International Marketing Manager for Moorman’s
Inc., an Illinois-based manufacturer of soy-based livestock nutrition products. Before that, he spent
five years in positions supporting in-house venture capital and biotechnology research activities in
a major biotechnology company.
Mr. Nill grew up on a farm in North Dakota. He is a member of the American Chemical Society,
the Licensing Executives Society, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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A
A
A-DNA A particular right-handed helical form • Certain anticancer drugs (thereby
of DNA (possessing 11 base pairs per turn), making it harder to halt certain cancer
which is the form that DNA molecules exist tumors via use of pharmaceuticals)
in when they are partially dehydrated. A-form • Certain antibiotics (thereby confer-
DNA is found in fibers at 75% relative humid- ring antibiotic resistance on some
ity and requires the presence of sodium, potas- pathogenic bacteria)
sium, or cesium as the counterion. Instead of
lying flat, the bases are tilted with respect to ABC transporter molecules are embedded in the
the helical axis, and there are more base pairs plasma membrane (i.e., surface “skin”) of
per turn. The A-form is biologically interest- cells.
ing because it is probably very close to the See also CELL, PLASMA MEMBRANE, PRO-
conformation adopted by DNA–RNA hybrids TEIN, CATALYST, ION, POLYPEPTIDE
or by RNA–RNA double-stranded regions. (PROTEIN), CANCER, CHEMOTHERAPY,
The reason is that the presence of the 22 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
hydroxyl group prevents RNA from lying in Abiogenesis Spontaneous generation.
the B-form. See also BIOGENESIS
See also B-DNA, DNA–RNA HYBRID, Abiotic Absence of living organisms.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA), See also ABIOTIC STRESSES
BASE PAIR (bp) Abiotic Stresses The stress caused (e.g., to
A See WATER ACTIVITY (A ) crop plants) by nonliving, environmental fac-
w w
aAI-1 See ALPHA AMYLASE INHIBITOR-1 tors such as cold, drought, flooding, salinity,
ab initio Gene Prediction (ab initio = “from ozone, toxic-to-that-organism metals (e.g.,
the beginning”) aluminum, for plants), and ultraviolet-B
The prediction of a gene’s (exon) structure via light.
algorithms (e.g., in a bioinformatics computer), See also CITRATE SYNTHASE (CSB) GENE
based on the protein coded for by the gene. Abrin A toxin derived from the seed of the
See also GENE, PROTEIN, EXON, ALGO- rosary pea.
RITHM (IN BIOINFORMATICS), SEQU- See also RICIN, PHYTOCHEMICALS, TOXIN
ENCE (OF A DNA MOLECULE), SEQUENCE Abscisic Acid A phytohormone (plant hor-
(OF A PROTEIN MOLECULE) mone) utilized to control the following:
ABC See ASSOCIATION OF BIOTECH-
NOLOGY COMPANIES (ABC) • The size of stomatal pores — i.e.,
ABC Transport Proteins See ABC TRANS- the openings in leaves through which
PORTERS plants exchange oxygen and carbon
ABC Transporters Refers to a class of mem- dioxide (and, inadvertently, water)
brane transporter proteins that “transfer” with the atmosphere
the following across cell membranes: • Abscission (e.g., shedding of flow-
ers, fruit, etc.)
• Sugar molecules (used by cells as • Dormancy
“fuel”)
• Inorganic ions (needed to catalyze See also PLANT HORMONE, GPA1
certain cellular processes) Absolute Configuration The configuration of
• Polypeptides (i.e., protein molecules) four different substituent groups around an
1
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Absorbance (A) 2 Acclimatization
asymmetric carbon atom, in relation to D- and or slowdown in the production of ethylene (the
L-glyceraldehyde. hormone that causes fruit to ripen or soften).
A
See also DEXTROROTARY (D) ISOMER, See also ACC SYNTHASE, ETHYLENE,
LEVOROTARY (L) ISOMER SAM-K GENE, GENETIC ENGINEERING,
Absorbance (A) A measure of the amount of GENOME, PLANT HORMONE
light absorbed by a substance suspended in ACC Synthase Aminocyclopropane carboxy-
a matrix. The matrix may be gaseous, liquid, lic acid synthase/deaminase; it is one of the
or solid in nature. Most biologically active most critical enzymes in the metabolic path-
compounds (e.g., proteins) absorb light in way and creates the hormone ethylene inside
the ultraviolet (UV) or visible light portion fruit. Because ethylene causes certain fruits
of the spectrum. Absorbance is used to (e.g., tomatoes) to ripen (soften), it is possible
quantitate (measure) the concentration of to significantly delay the softening (i.e., spoil-
the substance in question (e.g., a substance age) process by controlling the creation of
dissolved in a liquid). ACC synthase via manipulation of the ACC
See also OPTICAL DENSITY (OD), SPEC- synthase gene.
TROPHOTOMETER See also ACC, METABOLISM, ENZYME,
Absorption From the Latin ab = “away” and METABOLITE, INTERMEDIARY METAB-
sorbere = “to suck into.” OLISM, PATHWAY, PLANT HORMONE,
The taking up of nutrients, water, etc., by assim- POLYGALACTURONASE (PG), ETHYL-
ilation (e.g., transport of the products of diges- ENE, SAM-K GENE
tion from the intestinal tract across the cell ACCase See ACETYL-CoA CARBOXY-
membranes from the gut and into the blood). LASE
See also ADME TESTS, DIGESTION Acceptor Control The regulation of the rate
(WITHIN ORGANISMS) of respiration by the availability of ADP as
Abzymes Catalytic antibodies that are syn- phosphate acceptor.
thetic constructs. They either stabilize the See also RESPIRATION, ADENOSINE
transition state of a chemical reaction or bind DIPHOSPHATE (ADP)
to a specific substrate, thereby increasing the Acceptor Junction Site The junction between
reaction rate of the reaction. the right 3 end of an intron and the left 5 end
See also CATALYTIC ANTIBODY, TRANSI- of an exon.
TION STATE, SUBSTRATE (CHEMICAL) See also INTRON, EXON
Ac-CoA Abbreviation for acetyl-coenzyme A. Accession (germplasm) The addition of ger-
Ac-CoA is a chemical that is synthesized in mplasm deposits to existing germplasm stor-
cell mitochondria by combining the thiol age banks.
(molecular group) of coenzyme A with an See also AMERICAN TYPE CULTURE COL-
acetyl group (i.e., from breakdown or diges- LECTION (ATCC), GERMPLASM
tion of fats, carbohydrates, or proteins). Accession (sequence data) The addition (e.g.,
See also COENZYME, COENZYME A, FATS, to a major public database) of the sequence
ACETYLCHOLINE, LUCONEOGENESIS, data for a newly determined gene or protein
ACETYL-CoA CARBOXYLASE, CHO- molecule.
LINESTERASE, CELL, MITOCHONDRIA, See also GENE, PROTEIN, SEQUENCE (OF
FATS, PROTEIN A DNA MOLECULE), SEQUENCE (OF A
Ac-P Acetylphosphate. PROTEIN MOLECULE), ALGORITHM (IN
ACC Abbreviation/acronym for the compound BIOINFORMATICS)
1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, Acclimatization The biological process whereby
which is produced from S-adenosylmethionine an organism adapts to a new environment. For
(SAM) in the fruit of certain plants. When the example, the body of a mountain climber who
“sam-k” gene is inserted into the genome of has spent a significant time high up on Mount
these plants, the level of SAM is greatly Everest (e.g., 20,000 ft above sea level) pro-
reduced in their fruit, which inhibits (slows) duces twice as many red blood cells (to
ripening or softening of the fruit via a reduction transport oxygen) than at sea level.
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ACE 3 Acid
Often, this adaptation actually occurs at a Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase An enzyme that
molecular level. One example is when natural catalyzes the chemical reaction (i.e., conver-
A
microorganisms adapt so that they feed on and sion of Ac-CoA to malonyl CoA via carbox-
degrade toxic chemical wastes; or change ylation), which is the first step in the series of
from using one sugar as a fuel source to chemical reactions through which some plants
another. “manufacture” oils (e.g., soybean oil, canola
See also SUGAR MOLECULES, CATABO- oil, etc.).
LISM, RED BLOOD CELLS, COLD HARD- See also ENZYME, FATS, SOYBEAN OIL,
ENING, PHARMACOENVIROGENETICS CANOLA
ACE Angiotensin-converting enzyme. It is an Acetylation See HISTONES, POSTTRANS-
enzyme that is crucial (within the human vascu- LATIONAL MODIFICATION OF PROTEIN
lar system) for catalyzing the formation of Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter (i.e., one of
angiotensin, a hormone that causes narrowing/ several relatively small, diffusible molecules
restriction of blood vessels; this increases the utilized by the human body to “transmit”
body’s blood pressure as the blood is “squeezed” nerve impulses) that is synthesized (i.e., man-
through these narrowed blood vessels. ufactured) near the ends of axons (i.e., one
The action of ACE can be inhibited by the phar- type of neuron). That synthesis is accom-
maceuticals known as ACE inhibitors. plished by the “transfer” of an acetyl group
Research indicates that consumption of whey (portion of molecule) from Ac-CoA to a cho-
protein can also result in inhibition of ACE. line molecule (that is available in the body via
See also ENZYME, HORMONE, ACE INHIB- consumption of soybean lecithin or certain
ITORS other foods) in a chemical reaction catalyzed
ACE Inhibitors A “family” of chemically by cholinesterase.
similar pharmaceuticals utilized to lower Research indicates that consumption of a chem-
blood pressure in humans by blocking the for- ical compound known as Huperzine A, which
mation of a hormone (angiotensin) that nar- is extracted from the Chinese club moss
rows/restricts blood vessels. (Huperzia serrata), inhibits the enzyme that
See also ACE breaks down acetylcholine molecules within
Acetobacter aceti A bacterium that can “spoil” the human body.
alcohol-containing beverages by turning the Increased amounts of acetylcholine in the
ethanol into vinegar (acetic acid). Discovered (human) brain has been shown to reduce the
by Louis Pasteur during the 1800s. symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.
See also BACTERIA See also NEUROTRANSMITTER, NEURON,
Acetolactate Synthase See ALS CHOLINE, Ac-CoA, LECITHIN, ALZHEI-
Acetyl Carnitine One of the metabolites of MER’S DISEASE, THYMUS, ENZYME,
mitochondria, it is a substrate (i.e., substance CHOLINESTERASE, ENDOTHELIAL
that is acted upon) for acylcarnitine trans- NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE (eNOS)
ferase (which converts the acetyl carnitine to Acetylcholinesterase An enzyme that hydro-
carnitine). lyzes (i.e., cuts into smaller pieces) molecules
Research indicates that consumption of acetyl of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine after they
carnitine helps to increase the levels of ace- have accomplished “transmission” of a nerve
tylcholine and nerve growth factor (NGF) in impulse. The hydrolysis serves to prepare the
the brain. neurons (cells of the body’s nervous system)
See also METABOLITE, MITOCHONDRIA, for the transmission of new nerve impulses.
ACYLCARNITINE TRANSFERASE, SUB- See also ENZYME, HYDROLYSIS, NEU-
STRATE (CHEMICAL), CARNITINE, ACE- ROTRANSMITTER, ACETYLCHOLINE,
TYLCHOLINE, NERVE GROWTH FAC- NEURON
TOR (NGF) Acid A substance that contains hydrogen
Acetyl-Coenzyme A See Ac-CoA atoms in its molecular structure, with a pH in
Acetyl-CoA Acetyl-coenzyme A. the range from 0 to 6, which can react with a
See Ac-CoA base to form a salt. Acids normally taste sour
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Acidic Fibroblast Growth Factor (AFGF) 4 Activator (of gene)
and feel slippery. For example, food product Actin A contractile (i.e., periodically contract-
manufacturers often add citric acid, malic ing) protein that is present within — or as part
A
acid, fumaric acid, and itaconic acid in order of the exterior — of eucaryotic cells. Via its
to impart a “sharp” taste to food products. contractions, actin is involved in the following
See also BASE, CITRIC ACID, FUMARIC actions of eucaryote cells:
ACID (C H O )
4 4 4
Acidic Fibroblast Growth Factor (AFGF) • Movement (e.g., when it “pulls” the
See FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR (FGF) cell to a new position) within the
Acidosis A metabolic condition in which the body, much like a towrope. The
capacity of the body to buffer changes in pH “towrope” utilized is a long narrow
is diminished. Hence, acidosis is accompanied structure extending from the exterior
by decreased blood pH (i.e., the blood of cell, and is called a filopodia; it
becomes more acidic than is normal). is composed of actin surrounded by
ACP (Acyl Carrier Protein) A protein that a layer of the cell’s plasma mem-
binds acyl intermediates during the formation brane.
of long-chain fatty acids. ACP is important in • Separation of nuclear DNA during
that it is involved in every step of fatty acid meiosis (dividing in two; a reproduc-
synthesis. tive step in the life of a cell).
See also FATTY ACID, ACYL-CoA, FATS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Actin analogues present in bacterial cells
(AIDS) A disease in which a specific virus include ParM, which separates DNA plas-
attacks and kills macrophages and helper T mids during meiosis, and MreB, which are
cells (thus causing collapse of the entire located just beneath the outer membrane
immune system). Once the immune system and determine cell shape in rod-shaped
has been inactivated, other diseases that under bacteria.
normal circumstances would have been over- See also CELL, PROTEIN, EUCARYOTE,
come by the body, become fatal. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA),
See also HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY NUCLEAR DNA, MEIOSIS, CYTOSKELE-
VIRUS TYPE 1 (HIV-1), HUMAN IMMUN- TON, ANALOGUE, BACTERIA, PLASMA
ODEFICIENCY VIRUS TYPE 2 (HIV-2), MEMBRANE, MOTOR PROTEINS, CELL
HELPER T CELLS (T4 CELLS), MAC- MOTILITY, LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES,
ROPHAGE, TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR CHEMOTAXIS, MreB, ParM
(TNF) Activation Energy The amount of energy (cal-
Acquired Mutation A genetic change (i.e., ories) required to bring all the molecules in
mutation in DNA) that occurs within a one mole of a reacting substance to the tran-
somatic cell (i.e., cell not involved in the sition state. More simply, it may also be
organism’s reproduction), the mutation is, viewed as the energy required to bring reacting
therefore, not passed down to subsequent molecules to a certain energy state from which
generations. point the reaction proceeds spontaneously.
See also SOMATIC CELLS, MUTATION, See also TRANSITION STATE (IN A CHEM-
SOMATIC VARIANTS, CELL, ORGAN- ICAL REACTION), MOLE, FREE
ISM, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) ENERGY
Acrylamide Gel See POLYACRYLAMIDE Activator (of enzyme) A small molecule that
GELS stimulates (increases) an enzyme’s catalytic
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone [Cor- activity when it binds to an allosteric site.
ticotropin]) A polypeptide secreted by the See also ENZYME, EFFECTOR, ALLOS-
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. This is an TERIC SITE, CATALYST
example of a protein hormone. Activator (of gene) A protein molecule that
See also POLYPEPTIDE (PROTEIN), increases the expression of a given gene by
ENDOCRINE GLANDS, ENDOCRINE binding to transcription control sites (e.g.,
HORMONES within that gene or in an adjacent intron).
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC