Globalisation in Fisheries and Aquaculture : Opportunities and Challenges.

162 Pages·2010·2.91 MB·English

by  OECD

Globalisation in Fisheries and Aquaculture
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
Globalisation in Fisheries
Global markets for fish and fish products have changed considerably over the past few decades
and continue to do so, with ever growing interactions across countries and continents. Change
and Aquaculture
has brought substantial benefits to the world economy and a number of policy challenges for
governments. To meet these challenges, without compromising the advantages of increasing
market interactions, countries must develop and implement fisheries management frameworks and
aquaculture strategies that accommodate globalisation without undermining resource sustainability. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
Further reading
Fishing for Coherence: Fisheries and Development Policies
Globalisation and Fisheries: Proceedings of an OECD-FAO Workshop
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Globalisation in Fisheries
and Aquaculture
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
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ISBN 978-92-64-07432-3 (print)
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DOI 10.1787/9789264074927-en
Also available in French: L’impact de la mondialisation sur la pêche et l’aquaculture: Défis et opportunités
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FOREWORD
Foreword
O
ver the past decades, global markets for fish and fish products have changed considerably. This
is an ongoing process in which operators along the fisheries value chain (fishers, fish farmers,
traders, processors and retailers) seek new opportunities, reduced production costs and profitable
investments in an increasingly internationalised business environment. New products and
production methods, fragmentation and outsourcing of production processes, and changing value
chains are characteristics of the ever evolving nature of global fish markets. The particularity about
fisheries is that it is part of a global commons that demands regional and international co-operation
to ensure that fish stocks are exploited in a sustainable and responsible way.
“Fisheries globalisation” is a process that can be inhibited or fostered by various drivers including
the trading regime, national and international rules on investments and services, national regulations
that deal with food safety, labelling, migration, nationality requirements for fishers, etc., as well as
international fisheries arrangements. Hence, analysis of the fisheries sector needs to take into account
the specific context in which globalisation takes place. Concurrently, globalisation manifests itself in a
number of ways within each element of the fisheries value chain, as well as among them.
Against these observations, the OECD’s Fisheries Committee has undertaken a study on the
opportunities and challenges of globalisation in the fisheries sector (see below).
OECD Committee for Fisheries Study of Fisheries Globalisation
As agreed at the 95th Session in2005 when the Committee for Fisheries set out to do a
Study of Fisheries Globalisation, the project:
…should outline the broad range of consequences of globalisation for the sector, actual
and potential inhibitions to adjustment to globalisation, and how these might be
addressed. The project should focus on particular issues including how uneven regulation
and management of fisheries worldwide gave rise to a range of opportunities and risks
from the process of globalisation. The costs of policy inaction, the linkages between OECD
and non-OECD countries as well as policy coherence were also highlighted as areas of
concern. The value-chain approach was found to be a useful way to frame the project.
A number of papers were subsequently developed and discussed by the OECD Fisheries
Committee. Furthermore, in April2007 the Committee hosted (jointly with the FAO Secretariat) a
Workshop on the Challenges and Opportunities of Fisheries Globalisation.* These elements constitute
the substantive material on which this report has been developed.
* Proceedings are published as Globalisation and Fisheries: Proceedings of an OECD-FAO Workshop
(OECD/FAO,2007).
GLOBALISATION IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES © OECD 2010 3
FOREWORD
When discussing the work on globalisation, the Fisheries Committee decided that a value-chain
approach would be the most useful way to organise the study. This was done for two main reasons:
the value chain as an organising framework can help ensure a more comprehensive coverage of the
issues; and the value-chain approach will help understand the linkages between its constituent
elements (harvesting; aquaculture; processing; and consumer markets). In a world characterised by
the reaching of maximum sustainable yields in many capture fisheries, it is important that the total
value generated by the fisheries value chain (from harvesters to consumers) is maximised. Adopting
a value-chain approach will help identify how to maximise the total contribution to society of
globalisation in the sector. Likewise, when considered over time, such an approach allows the
identification of developments in the value chain, e.g. increasing concentration, forward integration.
Following the Workshop on the Opportunities and Challenges in Fisheries Globalisation held in
April2007 (i.e.“Workshop” in the following), it was decided to use the value-chain approach. The
study describes the key issues and developments (such as why companies globalise), highlights and
discusses the policy implementation gaps in policy areas relevant to each value chain element. The
study concludes with an integrative chapter that analyses the particular challenges that policy makers
most urgently need to address. The annexes to the study provides an overview of the global trends that
affect the fisheries value chain and provides information specifically related to the developments for
groundfish, salmon, shrimp and tuna.
In developing this study, information from the Workshop was particularly helpful. In addition,
major fishing companies from each value chain element were surveyed. AnnexC provides a brief
review of the largest seafood companies globally by region. These companies post a wealth of
financial and other information on their websites to comply with company legislation for listed
companies. This does not mean that smaller companies or companies in private hands do not
globalise; however information on their activities is much harder to acquire. This study is based on
information available to the Fisheries Committee in the April2006 to April2008 period; recent
economic events may influence future developments in the fisheries sector and have not been
factored into the analysis.
This study was developed and written by Ingrid Kelling, Doan Jeong and Carl-Christian Schmidt,
and was edited by Emily Andrews-Chouicha of the OECD Fisheries Policies Division.
4 GLOBALISATION IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES © OECD 2010
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Defining globalisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
The value-chain approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 2. Globalisation in the Harvesting Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Globalisation in harvesting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Investing abroad in capture fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Bilateral fisheries access arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
High seas fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Policy implementation gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 3. Globalisation in the Aquaculture Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Internationalisation of aquaculture production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Policy implementation gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Chapter 4. Globalisation in the Fish Processing Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Regulatory environment for processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Developing country issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Developed country issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Industry consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Policy implementation gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 5. Globalisation in the Fisheries RetailSector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Globalisation of the fish retail sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The growth of private standards and labels for sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Policy issues and challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Policy options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Final observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
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Chapter 6. Addressing the Policy Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Implementation of effective governance and management frameworks. . . . . . . . . 89
Managing fishing industry adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Policy coherence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Compliance with existing international rules and regulations,
and setting new standards where appropriate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Market access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fisheries food safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Concluding observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Annex A. Globalisation and Fisheries Developments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Annex B. Global Developments in Groundfish, Salmon, Shrimpand Tuna. . . . . . . . . 119
Annex C. The Largest Seafood Companies Globally by Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Tables
2.1. World fishing fleet and fishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2. Distribution of decked and undecked vessels by number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1. Aquaculture production in inland and marine waters, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2. World aquaculture production by main species group, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3. Farmed species with a value above USD1billion, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4. Costs of freight between main producing and consuming regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5. Global salmon production by company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1. Technological developments in the fish processing sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2. Ten largest companies in the fishing industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3. World market –Whitefish blocks and fillets from China2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.4. Cost of raw material, wages and depreciation as a percentage ofturnover
in Danish fish processing, 2002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5. Value chain integration in the processing sector, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6. Trade weighted tariff averages for eleven OECD countries’ total imports,
separatedbyprocessing stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.7. Tariff averages by important species for eleven OECD countries, per cent. . . . . . . 68
5.1. World top 10food retailers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2. Supermarket shares of sales of fish and fish products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3. Sourcing of selected retailers (all products). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4. Market shares of private labels in the French seafood market in2000 . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.5. European retailers with the largest range of MSC products underown-brand
in2005. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
A.1. Development of the fisheries sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
A.2. Projected growth rates for fish as food, 1997-2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
A.3. The twenty largest seafood transnational corporations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
A.4. Proliferation of international governance in fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
B.1. Ranking of total salmon production by country in volume, 1981-2001. . . . . . . . . . 128
B.2. Comparison of three shrimp production types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
B.3. Tariff summaries of major shrimp importing countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6 GLOBALISATION IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES © OECD 2010
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B.4. Distant water fishing nations’ tuna catches from western
andcentralPacific Ocean, and payments (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
B.5. Share of tuna exports in total fish and fish product exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
B.6. Tariff summaries of major tuna importing countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Figures
1.1. The fisheries value chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2. Net export from developing countries of selected commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1. The harvesting sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2. Number of fishing vessels above 100GRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3. Spanish catches, 1950-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4. Spanish catches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5. Japanese catches in the Atlantic Ocean (FAO areas 21, 27, 34, 37, 41, 47) . . . . . . . . 31
2.6. Japanese catches in the Pacific Ocean (FAO areas 71, 77, 81) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7. Catches by all vessels in the South-East Atlantic (FAO statistical area 47)
– Excluding Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.8. Catches by Namibian vessels in the South-East Atlantic (statistical area 47) . . . . 35
3.1. Aquaculture production1980-2005by region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2. Schematic aquaculture production system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1. Utilisation of world fisheries production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2. Processing opportunities for groundfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1. Darden– A global seafood purchaser (from countries in dark blue) . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1. Norway, number of employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.2. Iceland, number of employees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.3. Japan, number of businesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
A.1. Increasing participation of developing countries in fish production
(capture and aquaculture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
A.2. World fish production by capture fisheries and aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
A.3. China in world fish production, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
A.4. Increasing participation of developing countries in fisheries exports. . . . . . . . . . . 109
A.5. Trends in world fisheries production and exports (1976=100) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
A.6. Proliferation of international governance in fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
B.1. Groundfish production from capture fisheries, by volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
B.2. Total farmed groundfish production, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
B.3. Alaska pollack trade and production, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B.4. World salmon production, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
B.5. World catches of wild salmon, by volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
B.6. Leading salmon producers, by volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
B.7. Salmon production and trade, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
B.8. Global wild shrimp catches, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
B.9. World production of farmed shrimp, by volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
B.10. World production of wild and farmed shrimp, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
B.11. Share of shrimp exports in international trade in2006, by value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
B.12. World shrimp production and exports, by volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
B.13. Growth in world production and export of shrimp (1976-2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
B.14. World catches of major tuna species, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
B.15. World wild catches of major tuna species by the ten largest countries . . . . . . . . . 143
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B.16. World canned tuna production, by volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
B.17. Share of tuna exports in international trade in2006, by value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
B.18. World tuna production (frozen, fresh and chilled, and canned)
andexports of major tuna species, by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
B.19. Developments in world production and export of tuna andtunaproducts,
by volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8 GLOBALISATION IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES © OECD 2010