Table Of ContentGlobal Environmental
Change
2nd Edition
Dr A.M. MANNION
The University 0/ Reading, Department a/Geography, Whiteknights,
PO Box 227, Reading, RG66AB
Tel: 0118.9318733 Fax: 0118.9755865 Email [email protected]
81 Routledge
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Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
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Dedication
For JCM and MM
No day passes without remembrance
First published 1991 by Addison Wesley Longman Limited
Second Edition 1997
Published 2014 by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Copyright © 1997, Taylor & Francis.
The right of A M Mannion to be identified
as author of this Work has been asserted by
her in accordance with the Copyright,
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Notices
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and
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ISBN 13: 978-0-582-27722-9 (pbk)
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Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Chapter 1 Nature, culture and environmental change 4
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 The development of ideas about environmental change 41
1.3 Modern concepts: environmental systems and Gaia 4
1.4 Agents and processes of environmental change 6
1.5 People/environment relationships 8
1.6 Conclusion 11
Further reading 11
Chapter 2 Quaternary geology and climatic change 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Quaternary subdivisions based on the terrestrial
record 12
2.3 The record of climatic change from the oceans 16
2.4 The record of climatic change from ice cores 21
2.5 Tree rings, historical and meteorological records 24
2.6 Causes of climate change 28
2.7 Environmental change in high latitudes 30
2.8 Environmental change in middle latitudes 32
2.9 Environmental change in low latitudes 36
2.10 Sea-level changes 38
2.11 Conclusion 40
Further reading 41
Chapter 3 Environmental change in the late- and post-glacial periods 42
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 The interglacial cycle 42
3.3 Climatic change during the late-glacial period 43
3.4 Regional expression of changes during the
late-glacial period 53
3.5 Faunal changes during the late-glacial period 60
3.6 Climatic change during the early Holocene 63
3.7 Regional expression of changes during the
early Holocene 67
3.8 Climatic change during the later Holocene 71
3.9 Regional expression of changes during the
later Holocene 73
3.10 Conclusion 77
Further reading 77
Chapter 4 Prehistoric communities as agents of environmental
change 78
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 The evolution of modern humans 78
4.3 The relationship between environment and
Palaeolithic groups 89
4.4 The relationship between environment and
Mesolithic groups 97
4.5 Domestication of plants and animals:
the beginnings of agriculture 102
4.5.1 Centres of plant domestication:
the Near East 107
4.5.2 Centres of the Far East 107
4.5.3 The sub-Saharan centre 107
4.5.4 Centres of the Americas 107
4.5.5 The domestication of animals 107
4.6 The Neolithic period 112
4.7 The Bronze Age 118
4.8 The Iron Age 122
4.9 Conclusion 128
Further reading 128
Chapter 5 Environmental change in the historic period 129
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 The impact of the Greeks and Romans 129
5.3 The Middle Ages (ca. 400-1400) 134
5.4 The period 1400-1750 139
5.5 Immediate consequences of industrialisation,
1750--1914 143
5.6 Rural changes after 1750 145
5.7 Changes in Africa following European settlement 147
5.8 Changes in the Americas following European
settlement 151
5.9 Changes in Australia and New Zealand following
European settlement 157
5.10 Conclusion 160
Further reading 161
Chapter 6 Environmental change due to post-1700 industrialisation 162
6.1 Introduction 162
6.2 Changes where mineral extraction occurs 162
6.3 Changes distant from the source of mineral
extraction 167
6.4 Reclamation of mine-damaged land 168
6.5 Changes due to fossil-fuel use: global warming 171
6.5.1 Greenhouse gases: sources and sinks 171
6.5.2 The potential impact of global warming 177
6.6 Changes due to fossil-fuel use: acidification 186
6.7 Ozone and lead problems 193
6.8 Changes caused by disposal of waste materials 199
6.9 Conclusion 204
Further reading 204
Chapter 7 The environmental impact of agriculture in the developed
w~ ~
7.1 Introduction 205
7.2 Landscape change: loss of habitats and biodiversity 205
7.3 Soil degradation, erosion and conservation 209
7.4 Desertification 217
7.5 Water quality: cultural eutrophication 220
7.6 Soil and water quality: salinisation 225
7.7 The impact of crop-protection agents 231
7.8 Conclusion 238
Further reading 238
Chapter 8 The environmental impact of agriculture in the developing
world 239
8.1 Introduction 239
8.2 Landscape change: loss of natural habitats and
biodiversity 239
8.3 Soil degradation, erosion and conservation 245
8.4 Desertification 251
8.5 Soils: salinisation, alkalinisation and waterlogging 255
8.6 The impact of agriculture on water quality 261
8.7 Conclusion 264
Further reading 265
Chapter 9 Other agents of change: forestry, recreation and tourism,
biotechnology 266
9.1 Introduction 266
9.2 Forestry and afforestation in the developed world 266
9.3 Forestry and afforestation in the developing world 275
9.4 The impact of recreational activities 280
9.5 The impact of tourism 284
9.6 The environmental implications of biotechnology 289
9.6.1 Agriculture 289
9.6.2 Other applications 296
9.7 Conclusion 302
Further reading 303
Chapter 10 Conclusion and prospect 304
10.1 Introduction 304
10.2 Environmental factors: a series of perspectives 306
10.2.1 The Quaternary period 307
10.2.2 The impact of industrialisation 308
10.2.3 The impact of agriculture 308
10.2.4 The implications of social and political factors 309
10.3 Environmental factors: their future impacts 312
10.3.1 The future of the climate 313
10.3.2 The future effects of industrialisation 315
10.3.3 The future effects of agriculture 315
10.3.4 The future effects of social and political factors 318
10.4 Envoi 321
Further reading 322
References 323
Index 375
Preface
The world has changed a great deal since the first edition of Global
Environmental Change was published in 1991. The physical processes of
environmental change have in many cases accelerated, and attitudes to
environmental change have altered. Changes in attitude have been
prompted to a large extent by the Earth Summit, the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development which took place in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992, and by the continued media coverage of
environmental issues. These developments are encouraging and
emphasise the continued importance of environmental change at all
scales and its contribution to global transformation.
It was with fear and trepidation that I set out to write GEC2. I was
fearful because of the success of GECI and thought perhaps that I
should quit while ahead. The trepidation sprang from the realisation
that GEC2 needed to be a new book and not just a new edition because
of the huge volume of literature produced over the past few years. Even
in the eighteen months since I began GEC2 I have had to rewrite several
sections before publication. As well as revising the structure and
content, I have borne in mind the many comments I received from
individuals via Longman's questionnaire that accompanied inspection
copies of GECI. I appreciate the opinions and sympathise with those
who expressed reservations about the limited coverage of certain topics.
This is particularly so in relation to the policy and management
dimensions of global environmental change. Where appropriate I have
referred to these issues; it was never my intention to make them a major
focus of either GECI or GEC2 but rather to concentrate on the
processes and effects of environmental change. There are also set word
limits within which I am obliged to work and to do full justice to all the
topics covered, I really would need to write an encyclopaedia!
Antoinette M. Mannion
Note Dating: K years = OOOs years (1 x 103)
