Table Of ContentGigantic Challenges, Nano Solutions
Gigantic Challenges, Nano Solutions
The Science and Engineering of Nanoscale Systems
Maher S. Amer
Published by
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Gigantic Challenges, Nano Solutions: The Science
and Engineering of Nanoscale Systems
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ISBN 978-981-4877-74-9 (Hardcover)
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Contents
Preface
1. In troduc tion and Overview i1x
1.1 Origins of Nanotechnology 1
1.2 What Is Nanotechnology? 5
1.2.1 What Can Nanotechnology Do for Us? 6
1.2.2 Where the Name “Nano” Came From? 6
1.2.3 Does Every Nanosystem Have to Be
So Small? 7
1.2.4 The Properties of Matter Change by
Entering the Nanodomain 8
1.2.5 Has Nanotechnology Been Used Before? 9
1.2.6 Could Nanoscale Engineering Be
2. NanophenomenaD eveloped Earlier? 1115
2.1 Optical Phenomena 15
2.2 Electronic Phenomena 22
2.3 Thermal Phenomena 25
3. 2B.u4l k SysMteemchs aannidc aNl aPnhoesncoamle eSnyast ems 2371
3.1 Thermodynamics of Large and Small Systems 31
3.2 Thermodynamics of Small Systems 37
3.3 Thermal Fluctuations in Thermodynamic
Systems 39
3.4 Configurational Entropy of Small Systems 40
4. 3Sc.5a les oMf Tohleecrmuloard yMnaacmhiicn Ienrhyo mogeneity 4449
4.1 Introduction 49
4.2 Scales of Thermodynamic Inhomogeneity 49
4.2.1 Thermal Gravitational Length Scale 50
4.2.2 The Capillary Length 51
4.2.3 Tolman Length Scale 53
vi Contents
τ τ σ
ξ
4.2.4 Line Tension ( ) and the ( / ) Ratio 57
4.2.5 The Correlation Length ( ) 58
5. 4D.e3p letioSnu mFomrcaersy a nd Surface Tension Effects 6603
5.1 Entropic and Depletion Forces 63
6. 5Sy.2m metSruy rafancde S Tyemnmsieotnr yE Offepcetrsa tions 6793
6.1 Introduction 73
6.2 Symmetry Elements and Their Operations 74
i
6.2.1 Identity (E) 74
n
6.2.2 Center of Symmetry () 75
σ
6.2.3 Rotation Axes (C ) 76
n
6.2.4 Planes of Symmetry ( ) (Mirror Planes) 76
6.2.5 Rotation Reflection Axes (S )
(Improper Rotation) 78
6.3 Symmetry Elements and Symmetry Operations 79
6.4 Point Groups 80
6.4.1 Point Groups of Molecules 80
6.4.2 Point Groups of Crystals 87
np
6.5 Space Groups 92
6.5.1 Screw Axis ( ) 92
6.5.2 Glide Planes 93
6.6 Space Groups in 1- and 2-D Space 96
6.6.1 Space Groups in 1-D Space (Linear
Objects) 96
6.6.2 Space Groups in 2-D Space (Plane
Space Groups or Wallpaper Groups) 99
7. 6Fu.7ll erenSeusm: Tmhea rByu ilding Blocks 110047
7.1 Introduction 107
8. 7Sp.2h ericaFlu, lZleerroe-nDeism: eTnhsei oBneagli,n Bnuicnkgms iannsdte Crfuurlrleernetn Setsa te 111107
8.1 Introduction 117
8.2 The Structure 117
8.2.1 The Structure of the [60] Fullerene
Molecule 125
Contents vii
8.2.2 The Structure of the [70] Fullerene
Molecule 128
8.3 Endo-fullerenes 130
8.4 Fullerene Onions 133
8.5 Giant Spherical Fullerenes 135
8.6 Production Methods of Spherical Fullerenes 137
8.6.1 The Huffman–Krätschmer Method 137
8.6.2 The Benzene Combustion Method 140
8.6.3 The Condensation Method 140
8.7 Extraction Methods of Fullerenes 141
8.8 Purification Methods of Fullerenes 145
8.9 Properties of 0-D Fullerenes 148
8.9.1 The Raman Scattering of Fullerenes 148
8.9.1.1 Raman Scattering of C60
Molecules and Crystals 148
8.9.1.2 Raman scattering of C70 155
8.9.2 Fullerene Solubility and Solvent
Interactions 159
8.9.3 Solvent Effects on Fullerenes 169
8.9.4 Fullerene Effects on Solvents 174
8.9.5 Mechanical Properties of Spherical
Fullerenes 177
8.9.6 Spherical Fullerene-Based 2-D
9. One-DimensionaMl Fautlelerriaelnse s, Carbon Nanotubes 118805
9.1 Introduction 185
9.2 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 185
9.3 Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 198
9.4 Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 200
9.5 Production of Carbon Nanotubes 201
9.5.1 The Arc-Discharge Method 201
9.5.2 Other Condensation Methods 203
9.5.3 The HiPco Process and Other
Pyrolytic Methods 204
9.6 Purification of Carbon Nanotube 205
9.7 Mechanical Properties of 1-D Fullerenes 207
9.8 Raman Scattering of Single-Walled Carbon
Nanotubes 208
viii Contents
9.9 Raman Scattering of Double- and Multi-Walled
Carbon Nanotubes 215
9.10 Thermal Conductivity 220
9.11 Solvent Interactions 224
9.11.1 Solubility 224
9.11.2 Effect on Solvents 225
9.12 2-D Materials Based on Single-Walled
Carbon Nanotubes 226
10 9Tw.1o3- DimSWenCsNioTnsa lU Fnudlleerr eHnyedsr, oPsltaantaicr FPurlelessreunree , 230
or Graphene 239
10.1 Introduction 239
10.2 The Structure 240
10.3 Production of Graphene 244
10.4 Raman Scattering of Graphene 248
10.5 2-D Films Based on Graphene Flakes 255
10.5.1 Mechanical Properties 258
10.5.2 Optical Properties 259
10.5.3 Electrical Conductivity 259
11. Overview10, P.5o.4te ntGiaralsp, hCehnaell eton gGersa, pahnidte E thical 261
Consideration 265
11.1 Overview 265
11.2 Potential 266
Index11.3 Challenges 269
273
Preface ix
Preface
Two fundamental discoveries have recently started a new era of
scientific research, the discovery of fullerenes and the development
of single-molecule imaging capabilities. The discovery of fullerenes
with their unique properties, highly versatile nature, and many
potential applications in materials science, chemistry, physics,
opto-electronics, biology, and medicine, has launched a new branch
of interdisciplinary research known as “nanotechnology.” This
technology revolutionized the multibillion-dollar field of opto-
electronics and is a key to wireless communications, remote sensing,
and medical diagnostics and still has a lot to offer. The development
of single-molecule imaging and investigating capabilities provided
the means for studying reactions of complex material systems and
biological molecules in natural systems.
The real importance of these discoveries is that they, synergized
together, put forward the platform for what can be called “the next
industrial revolution” in human history, “nanotechnology.” Just as the
quantum mechanics work of the 1930s led to the electronic material
revolution in the 1980s, and as the fundamental work in molecular
biology in the 1950s gave rise to the current biotechnology, it is
believed that the emerging work in nanotechnology has the potential
to fundamentally change the way people live within the next two
decades. The ability to manipulate matter on the atomic level and to
manufacture devices from the molecular level up will definitely have
major implications. Among the advances and benefits foreseen for
nanotechnology implementation are inexpensive energy generation,
highly efficient manufacturing, environmentally benign materials,
universal clean water supplies, atomically engineered crops resulting
in greater agricultural productivity, radically improved medicines,
unprecedented medical treatments and organ replacement, greater
information storage and communication capacities, and increased
human performance through convergent technologies. This means
that nanotechnology is expected to revolutionize manufacturing
and energy production, in addition to healthcare, communications,
utilities, and definitely defense. Hence, nanotechnology will
