Table Of ContentGetting Skills Right
Creating Responsive Adult
Learning Opportunities
in Japan
Getting Skills Right
Creating Responsive Adult
Learning Opportunities
in Japan
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Please cite this publication as:
OECD (2021), Creating Responsive Adult Learning Opportunities in Japan, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris,
https://doi.org/10.1787/cfe1ccd2-en.
ISBN 978-92-64-89300-9 (print)
ISBN 978-92-64-46164-2 (pdf)
Getting Skills Right
ISSN 2520-6117 (print)
ISSN 2520-6125 (online)
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3
Foreword
The world of work is changing. Digitalisation, globalisation, and population ageing are having a profound
impact on the type and quality of jobs that are available and the skills required to perform them. The extent
to which individuals, firms and economies can reap the benefits of these changes will depend critically on
the readiness of adult learning systems to help people develop and maintain relevant skills over their
working careers.
To explore this issue, the OECD Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs has undertaken
an ambitious programme of work on the functioning, effectiveness and resilience of adult learning systems
across countries. This includes the creation of the Priorities for Adult Learning (PAL) dashboard for
comparing the readiness of each country’s adult learning system to address future skills challenges, as
well as a cross-country report, “Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems,” which
showcases relevant policy examples from OECD and emerging countries. The Directorate is also carrying
out a series of in-depth country reviews of adult learning systems to offer a comprehensive analysis of the
key areas where policy action is required.
This report reviews Japan’s existing adult learning system, and provides policy recommendations to
expand access to training, make adult learning more inclusive, improve the responsiveness of adult
learning to changing labour market needs, and support career progression and transitions through career
guidance. Chapter 1 looks at key labour market developments in Japan, and discusses how structural
changes have altered the demand for and supply of skills in recent decades. Chapter 2 discusses how
recent challenges to traditional Japanese labour market practices impact adult training provision. Chapter 3
assesses the future-readiness of the Japanese adult learning system, with a specific focus on the
availability of training opportunities in Japan and the coverage of the adult learning market. Chapter 4
examines the barriers adults face with regards to training participation, as well as the policies to address
them. Chapter 5 examines inequalities in access to adult learning opportunities and carefully examines the
training participation of disadvantaged groups, such as non-regular workers, older workers and workers in
SMEs. Chapter 6 looks at the responsiveness of adult learning policies to changing labour market needs,
while Chapter 7 discusses the importance for workers of receiving career guidance and support from both
employers and external providers.
This report was prepared by Michele Tuccio and Nozomi Ohno from the Skills and Employability Division
of the Directorate for Employment, Labour and Social Affairs, and Marieke Vandeweyer from the Centre
for Skills under the supervision of Glenda Quintini (Skills team manager) and Mark Keese (Head of the
Skills and Employability Division). The report benefitted also from the useful feedback of Stefano Scarpetta
(Director). The OECD Secretariat would like to thank the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare,
the Japanese Institute for Labour Policy and Training, and the Panel Data Research Center at Keio
University for their support in carrying out this project.
This report is published under the responsibility of the Secretary General of the OECD, with the financial
assistance of the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The views expressed in this report
should not be taken to reflect the official position of OECD member countries.
CREATING RESPONSIVE ADULT LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES IN JAPAN © OECD 2021
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Table of contents
Foreword 3
Acronyms and abbreviations 8
Executive summary 9
1 Changing skill needs in the Japanese labour market 11
In Brief 12
1.1. Megatrends are changing the supply and demand of skills 12
1.2. Skills imbalances have emerged 26
References 35
Notes 37
2 Implications for the Japanese employment system 38
In Brief 39
2.1. Japanese traditional employment practices 39
2.2. Limitation of traditional employment practices in an era of changing skill needs and labour
shortages 44
2.3. Structural changes are already affecting these practices 45
References 48
Notes 48
3 Japan’s need for more and better adult learning opportunities 49
In Brief 50
3.1. The need for more adult learning opportunities 50
3.2. The future-readiness of the Japanese adult learning system 52
3.3. The coverage of the adult training market in Japan 52
References 59
Notes 60
4 Increasing access to adult learning opportunities 61
In Brief 62
4.1. Reducing barriers to training 62
4.2. Expanding the Japanese adult learning market 69
References 84
Annex 4.A. Additional tables and figures 87
Notes 88
CREATING RESPONSIVE ADULT LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES IN JAPAN © OECD 2021
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5 Making adult learning more inclusive 90
In Brief 91
5.1. Making adult learning more inclusive 91
5.2. Increasing the participation in training of non-regular workers 94
5.3. Increasing the participation in training of older workers 98
5.4. Increasing the participation in training of workers in small firms 100
References 104
Annex 5.A. Additional tables 105
Annex 5.B. Policy details 108
Notes 110
6 Improving the responsiveness of adult learning to changing labour market needs 111
In Brief 112
6.1. Assessing skill and training needs 112
6.2. Aligning training with labour market needs 114
6.3. Targeting workers at risk 116
References 120
Notes 121
7 Career guidance to support career progression and transitions 122
In Brief 123
7.1. The need for high-quality career guidance services 123
7.2. Supporting workers with their career pathways 126
7.3. Career guidance for job seekers 140
References 142
Notes 143
FIGURES
Figure 1.1. The employment situation in Japan has been steadily improving 13
Figure 1.2. The increase in employment of women and the elderly has contributed to the recent improvements
of the Japanese labour market 14
Figure 1.3. Japan’s population is ageing rapidly 15
Figure 1.4. The rate of non-regular workers is increasing over time 16
Figure 1.5. The Japanese labour market has been polarising 17
Figure 1.6. Employment in professional and service occupations is on the rise in Japan 18
Figure 1.7. A large share of jobs in Japan face are at risk of change because of automation 19
Figure 1.8. The risk of automation is highest for low-educated and low-wage workers 20
Figure 1.9. Employment levels in Japan are rising modestly, mostly in sectors with high or medium-low digital
intensity 22
Figure 1.10. Educational attainment in Japan is on the rise 23
Figure 1.11. Skill levels of adults in Japan are high 24
Figure 1.12. Inequalities in digital problem-solving skills in Japan are high 25
Figure 1.13. Many adults have limited computer skills for data processing 25
Figure 1.14. The effective job-opening ratio is at its highest level in 45 years and there are fewer regional
differences than in the past 26
Figure 1.15. The hiring mismatch is growing 27
Figure 1.16. The majority of firms find it difficult to pass on their skills 28
Figure 1.17. Shortages can be found in a large variety of occupations in Japan 30
Figure 1.18. Health and education-related knowledge is facing the largest shortage pressure in Japan 31
Figure 1.19. A large share of workers in Japan are mismatched by qualification level and/or field 32
Figure 1.20. Qualification and field-of-study mismatches differ strongly between occupations and industries in
Japan 33
CREATING RESPONSIVE ADULT LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES IN JAPAN © OECD 2021
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Figure 1.21. Skills are not put to full use in Japan 34
Figure 2.1. Japanese workers often stay for long periods with the same employer 40
Figure 2.2. Lifetime employment is more prevalent among men in large companies 41
Figure 2.3. The number of workers working long hours is among the highest in G7 countries 42
Figure 2.4. The wage premium of working continuously in the same company in Japan is among the largest
across the OECD area 43
Figure 2.5. The number of people changing job has been on the rise 46
Figure 2.6. The seniority-based wage system is slowly fading 47
Figure 3.1. Priorities for Adult Learning dashboard for Japan 52
Figure 3.2. Relatively few adults participate in learning activities in Japan 53
Figure 3.3. Eight out of ten firms in Japan provide training to their workers 54
Figure 3.4. Most training is undertaken within the workplace, although the share of training at external
providers is significant 56
Figure 3.5. How do workers conduct self-development activities? 57
Figure 4.1. A lack of time is the main reason not to train for adults in Japan who wanted to participate in
training 63
Figure 4.2. Very few adults participate in formal education in Japan 70
Figure 4.3. Although increasing in the past years, the share of public providers offering adult formal training
remains relatively low 71
Figure 4.4. Part-time education remains underdeveloped in Japan 73
Figure 4.5. Distance learning practices are on the rise in Japan 74
Figure 4.6. Participation in the non-formal training courses provided by higher education institutions remains
limited 77
Figure 5.1. Access to training is highly unequal 92
Figure 5.2. Engagement in informal learning 94
Figure 5.3. Non-regular works face different issues with regards to self-development than regular workers 96
Figure 5.4. Older workers in regular jobs participate less in training than prime age workers 99
Figure 5.5. Large firms make much more ample use of HPWP than smaller firms in Japan 102
Figure 6.1. Japanese workers in jobs with a high probability of automation have limited access to training
opportunities 116
Figure 6.2. Workers in industries facing more surpluses do not have more training opportunities 117
Figure 7.1. A relatively small share of adults in Japan like learning new things 124
Figure 7.2. Access to school-mediated guidance activities is relatively low in Japan 126
Figure 7.3. Relatively few Japanese workers report to be extremely satisfied with their job 127
Figure 7.4. It takes relatively long for Japanese workers to move into management roles 128
Figure 7.5. Management practices in Japanese manufacturing firms are strong, but there is scope for
improvement in certain dimensions of talent management 130
TABLES
Table 3.1. Both workers and jobseekers are much more likely to train in private than public providers 58
Table 7.1. The information on occupations and training is scattered across different career guidance portals 138
Annex Table 4.A.1. The link between personal and work characteristics and training barriers 87
Annex Table 5.A.1. The link between personal characteristics and participation in job-related formal or non-
formal training 105
Annex Table 5.A.2. The link between personal and work characteristics and participation of workers in job-
related formal or non-formal training 106
Annex Table 5.B.1. Human Resource Development Grant eligibility and subsidy amounts 108
Annex Table 5.B.2. Training benefits system requirements and benefit amounts 109
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Acronyms and abbreviations
AI Artificial intelligence
AUD Australian Dollars
BP Brush Up Program for Professionals
DKK Danish Krone
ECEC Early childhood education and care
EUR Euro
EUWIN European Workplace Innovation Network
HPWP High performance work practices
ICT Information and communication technology
IFR International Federation of Robotics
IOT Internet of Things
JAMOTE Japan Association for Management of Training and Education
JEED Japan Organisation for Employment of the Elderly, Persons with Disabilities
and Job Seekers
JILPT Japanese Institute for Labour Policy and Training
JMOOC Japan Massive Open Online Education Promotion Council
JPY Japanese Yen
KSQA Korean Skills Quality Authority
KRW Korean Won
M2M Machine-to-machine communication
MEXT Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology
MHLW Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
OFF-JT Off-the-job training
OJT On-the-job training
PES Public employment services
PIAAC OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (Survey of Adult Skills)
PISA OECD Programme for International Student Assessment
RFID Radio-frequency identification technology
RPL Recognition of prior learning
SAA Skills assessment and anticipation
SAP Structural adjustment packages
SME Small and medium-sized enterprises
STEP Korean Smart Training Education Platform
VET Vocational education and training
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