GEOTHERMAL ENERGY : from theoretical models to exploration and development.

392 Pages·2021·23.87 MB·English

by  INGRID BUCHER KURT STOBER

Ingrid Stober
Kurt Bucher
Geothermal
Energy
From Theoretical Models to Exploration
and Development
Second Edition
Geothermal Energy
·
Ingrid Stober Kurt Bucher
Geothermal Energy
From Theoretical Models to Exploration
and Development
Second Edition
IngridStober KurtBucher
InstituteofGeo-andEnvironmental InstituteofGeo-andEnvironmental
Sciences,UniversityofFreiburg Sciences,UniversityofFreiburg
Freiburg,Baden-Württemberg,Germany Freiburg,Baden-Württemberg,Germany
ISBN978-3-030-71684-4 ISBN978-3-030-71685-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71685-1
1stedition:©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2013
2ndedition:©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2021
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Preface
Geothermalenergyisaninexhaustiblesourceofthermalandelectricalenergyona
humantimescale.Itsutilizationisfriendlytotheenvironmentandsuppliesbase-load
energy.Theenergysourcedoesnotdependonweather,andtheenergyissupplied24
hours per day during 7 days a week. Utilization of geothermal energy increases
the regional and local net product. It relieves dependence from fossil fuels and
helpstoconservethevaluablefossilchemicalresources.Deepgeothermalresources
provide thermal and electrical (converted thermal) energy, thus providing reliable
andsustainableenergyforthefuture.
Electrical energy from geothermal resources provides an important contribu-
tiontothebase-loadelectricalenergysupplyandreplaceslarge-scalepowerplants
fired with fossil fuels. A particularly prominent ranking regarding the production
of electrical energy holds the global high-enthalpy regions associated with active
volcanism in dynamic tectonic areas. However, geothermal energy can be utilized
worldwideandproducedatvariousdepthswithdifferentspecifictechnicalsystems.
Geothermalsystemsmaybeusedforcoveringtheheatdemandofsinglebuildings
orentiredistricts.Solitarysystemscanbecombinedwithlargegroupsofsystems,
e.g.,geothermalprobescanbearrangedtolargerprobefieldsmakingitpossibleto
heatandcoollargerbuildingcomplexesdependingonactualneeds.
Utilizationofdeepgeothermalresourcesextractshotfluidfromthermalreservoirs.
Thesehotwatersarere-injectedtothereservoirs,thusmaintainingthenaturalbalance
andpermittingasustainableandeconomicalmanagementoftheresource.Heatand
electricity from geothermal sources have the potential to cover a substantial share
oftheworldwidebase-loadenergydemandalsooutsidethehigh-enthalpyregions.
Fossil-fuel-firedpowerplantsmaybeusedcoveringpeakperiodrequirementsonly.
Theutilizationofgeothermalenergyfromshallowresourcesfortheproduction
ofenergyatlowtemperatureforheatingandcoolingapplicationsmadetremendous
progressinthepastdecades.
Geothermal energy from deep sources and reservoirs can contribute significant
base-loadenergy.ThenecessarytechnologyofEnhancedGeothermalSystems(EGS)
canbeinstallednearlyeverywhere.However,EGStechnologyneedsfurtherimprove-
mentsandresearch.SuccessfuldemonstrationprojectswouldhelptopopularizeEGS
further.
v
vi Preface
Long-term concepts of energy politics integrate geothermal energy sources
becauseitsuppliesbase-loadenergy.Intelligentcombinationofgeothermalsystems
with other sources of renewable energy can create diverse sustainable synergy
benefits. For residential homes, for example, combining ground-source heat pump
systemswithsolar-thermalsystemsprovedtobehighlyenergyefficient.Geothermal
powerfromadeephydrothermalsystemcanbecombinedwithabiogasinstallation
improvingtheenergyefficiency.Thedeepfluidreservoircanbeusedasarecharge-
ableaquiferstoragefacilityforextractingheatinthecoldseasonandrechargingit
in the warm season. Such combined systems strike out in a new direction ranging
fromheatmanagementforsinglehousestolarge-scalecityplanning.
This book aims to offer the reader a general overview over the many different
aspects of utilization of geothermal energy. We are looking forward to the further
rapiddevelopmentofthisfascinatingsourceofenergyintheyearstocome.Wewish
allofusareliable,safeandenvironmentallyfriendlysupplyofthermalandelectrical
power.Wehopetocontributetothesustainableuseofenergywiththisbook.
Freiburg,Germany IngridStober
KurtBucher
Contents
1 ThermalStructureoftheEarth ................................. 1
1.1 RenewableEnergies,GlobalAspects ........................ 2
1.2 InternalStructureoftheEarth .............................. 3
1.3 EnergyBudgetofthePlanet ............................... 7
1.4 HeatTransportandThermalParameters ..................... 9
1.5 Brief Outline of Methods for Measuring Thermal
Parameters .............................................. 14
1.6 MeasuringSubsurfaceTemperatures ........................ 15
References .................................................... 18
2 HistoryofGeothermalEnergyUse .............................. 21
2.1 EarlyUtilizationofGeothermalEnergy ..................... 22
2.2 HistoryofUtilizationofGeothermalEnergyintheLast
150Years ............................................... 27
References .................................................... 31
3 GeothermalEnergyResources .................................. 33
3.1 Energy .................................................. 34
3.2 Significanceof“Renewable”Energy ........................ 36
3.3 StatusofGeothermalEnergyUtilization ..................... 37
3.4 GeothermalEnergySources ............................... 40
References .................................................... 42
4 UsesofGeothermalEnergy .................................... 43
4.1 NearSurfaceGeothermalSystems .......................... 45
4.2 DeepGeothermalSystems ................................. 55
4.3 EfficiencyofGeothermalSystems .......................... 69
4.4 MajorGeothermalFields,High-EnthalpyFields .............. 72
4.5 OutlookandChallenges ................................... 77
References .................................................... 77
5 PotentialandPerspectivesofGeothermalEnergyUtilization ...... 81
References .................................................... 84
vii
viii Contents
6 GeothermalProbes ............................................ 85
6.1 PlanningPrinciples ....................................... 86
6.2 ConstructionofGroundSourceHeatExchangers ............. 86
6.3 DimensioningandDesignofGeothermalProbes .............. 94
6.3.1 HeatPumps ...................................... 94
6.3.2 ThermalParametersandComputerPrograms
for theDesign of Ground Source Heat Pump
Systems ......................................... 99
6.4 DrillingMethodsforBoreholeHeatExchangers .............. 106
6.4.1 RotaryDrilling ................................... 111
6.4.2 Down-The-HoleHammerMethod ................... 113
6.4.3 ConcludingRemarks,TechnicalDrillingRisks ........ 114
6.5 BackfillandGroutingofGeothermalProbes ................. 118
6.6 ConstructionofDeepGeothermalProbes .................... 123
6.7 Operating Geothermal Probes: Potential Risks,
MalfunctionsandDamages ................................ 125
6.8 SpecialSystemsandFurtherDevelopments .................. 127
6.8.1 GeothermalProbeFields ........................... 127
6.8.2 CoolingwithGeothermalProbes .................... 130
6.8.3 CombinedSolarThermal–GeothermalSystems ...... 131
6.8.4 Geothermal Probe: Performance and Quality
Control .......................................... 134
6.8.5 Thermosyphon,HeatPipe:GeothermalProbes
OperatingwithPhaseChanges ...................... 139
References .................................................... 143
7 GeothermalWellSystems ...................................... 145
7.1 BuildingGeothermalWellSystems ......................... 147
7.2 ChemicalAspectsofTwo-WellSystems ..................... 150
7.3 ThermalRangeofInfluence,NumericalModels .............. 151
References .................................................... 154
8 HydrothermalSystems,GeothermalDoublets .................... 155
8.1 Exploration of the Geologic and Tectonic Structure
oftheUnderground ....................................... 156
8.2 ThermalandHydraulicPropertiesoftheTargetAquifer ........ 160
8.3 HydraulicandThermalRangeofHydrothermalDoublets,
NumericalModels ........................................ 170
8.4 HydrochemistryofHotWatersfromGreatDepth ............. 174
8.5 Reservoir-Improving Measures, Efficiency-Boosting
Measures,Stimulation .................................... 179
8.6 ProductivityRisk,ExplorationRisk,EconomicEfficiency ...... 181
8.7 SomeSiteExamplesofHydrothermalSystems ............... 188
8.8 ProjectPlanningofHydrothermalPowerSystems ............. 196
8.9 AquiferThermalEnergyStorage(ATES) .................... 199
References .................................................... 201
Contents ix
9 Enhanced-Geothermal-Systems (EGS), Hot-Dry-Rock
Systems(HDR),Deep-Heat-Mining(DHM) ...................... 205
9.1 Techniques,Procedures,Strategies,Aims .................... 207
9.2 Historical Development of the Hydraulic Fracturing
Technology,EarlyHDRSites .............................. 209
9.3 StimulationProcedures .................................... 211
9.4 ExperienceandCopingwithSeismicity ..................... 217
9.5 Recommendations,Notes .................................. 218
References .................................................... 223
10 GeothermalSystemsinHigh-EnthalpyRegions .................. 227
10.1 GeologicalFeaturesofHigh-EnthalpyRegions ............... 228
10.2 Development, Installation and Initial Commissioning
ofPowerPlants .......................................... 234
10.3 MainTypesofPowerPlantsinHigh-EnthalpyFields .......... 238
10.3.1 DrySteamPowerPlant ............................ 238
10.3.2 FlashSteamPowerPlants .......................... 240
10.4 EvolvingDeficiencies,PotentialCountermeasures ............ 244
10.5 UseofFluidsfromReservoirsatSupercriticalConditions ...... 250
References .................................................... 254
11 EnvironmentalIssuesRelatedtoDeepGeothermalSystems ....... 257
11.1 SeismicityRelatedtoEGSprojects ......................... 259
11.1.1 InducedEarthquakes .............................. 261
11.1.2 QuantifyingSeismicEvents ........................ 264
11.1.3 TheBaselIncident ................................ 265
11.1.4 TheSt.GallenIncident(ESwitzerland) .............. 268
11.1.5 ObservedSeismicityatOtherEGSProjects ........... 270
11.1.6 ConclusionsandRecommendationsRegarding
Seismicity Control in Hydrothermal
andPetrothermal(EGS)Projects .................... 274
11.2 Interaction Between Geothermal System Operation
andtheUnderground ..................................... 278
11.3 Environmental Issues Related to Surface Installations
andOperation ........................................... 281
References .................................................... 282
12 DrillingTechniquesforDeepWellbores ......................... 287
References .................................................... 309
13 GeophysicalMethods,ExplorationandAnalysis ................. 311
13.1 Geophysical Pre-drilling Exploration, Seismic
Investigations ............................................ 312
13.2 GeophysicalWellLoggingandDataInterpretation ............ 319
References .................................................... 324
x Contents
14 TestingtheHydraulicPropertiesoftheDrilledFormations ........ 327
14.1 PrinciplesofHydraulicWellTesting ........................ 328
14.2 TypesofTests,PlanningandImplementation,Evaluation
Procedures .............................................. 338
14.3 TracerExperiments ....................................... 343
14.4 TemperatureEvaluationMethods ........................... 347
References .................................................... 349
15 The Chemical Composition of Deep Geothermal Waters
and Its Consequences for Planning and Operating
aGeothermalPowerPlant ..................................... 353
15.1 SamplingandLaboratoryAnalyses ......................... 355
15.2 ChemicalParametersCharacterizingDeepFluids ............. 357
15.3 GraphicalRepresentationofDeepFluidComposition ......... 362
15.4 EstimatingReservoirTemperaturefromtheComposition
ofDeepFluids ........................................... 365
15.4.1 TheQuartzThermometer .......................... 366
15.4.2 TheK-NaExchangeThermometer .................. 369
15.4.3 TheMg–KThermometer .......................... 371
15.4.4 OtherCationThermometers ........................ 373
15.4.5 TheTernaryGiggenbachDiagram ................... 374
15.4.6 Multiple Equilibria Models for Equilibrium
Temperature ..................................... 375
15.5 OriginofFluids .......................................... 376
15.6 SaturationStates,SaturationIndex .......................... 378
15.7 MineralScalesandMaterialsCorrosion ..................... 379
References .................................................... 386