Table Of Content•
Geosystems
Combination of satellite Terra MODIS sensor image and GOES satellite image produces a
true-color view of North and South America from 35,000 km (22,000 mi) in space. [Courtesy
,...+ 1\.Jir"\f"\IC c,..; .......... ,.,.. T,....,,_, r .... ...J..J---1 f"-_ -- ,...,: -·•-.... ,... ___ ..__ . .. ' .. ,.."
Mount Everest at New Heights
Astronaut Thomas D. Jones, Ph.D., made this photo of
Mount Everest during Space Shuttle flight STS-80,
November 1996. This startling view caught the mountain's
triangular East Face bathed in morning light (east is to the
lower left, nortl1 is to the lower right, south at the upper
left; see locator map direction arrow). The Nortl1 Face is
in the shadow. Several glaciers are visible flowing outward
from the mountains, darkened by rock and debris.
Mount Everest is at a higher elevation tl1an previous
ly thought! A revised elevation measurement using a glob metal marker was installed in the rock. This is a continua
al positioning system (GPS) instrument came in November tion of a measurement effort begun in 1995 (see News
1999 at the opening reception of the 87tl1 annual meeting Report 12.1 for more on this geographic challenge).
of the American Alpine Club in Washington, DC. The The new measurement is 8,850 m (29,035 ft)-see Fig
National Geographic Society hosted tl1e press conference. ure 12.2 for height comparisons. Everest's new elevation is
(See News Report 1.1 for more on GPS and Everest.) close to the previous official measure of8,848 m (29,028 ft)
In May 1999, mountaineers Pete Athans and Bill set in 1954 by the Survey of India. In addition, the new
Crouse reached the summit with five Sherpas. The climbers measurements determined that the horizontal position of
operated a Trimble GPS unit on Everest's summit and Everest is moving steadily northeastward, about 3 to 6 mm
found tl1e precise height of the world's tallest mountain. a year (up to 0.25 in. a year). The mountain range is plow
A photograph in News Report 1.1 shows a GPS unit ing furtl1er into Asia due to plate tectonics-tl1e continu
placed by climber Wally Berg 18m (60ft) below tl1e sum ing collision of Indian and Asian landmasses (see Figure
mit in 1998-Earth's highest benchmark, a permanent 11.16).
Geosystems
An Introduction to
Physical Geography
Fifth Edition
Animation Edition
Robert W. Christopherson
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Christopherson, Robert W.
Geosysrems: an introduction to physical geography I Robert VV. Christopherson.- 5th eel., animation ed.
p. em.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-13-144196-5
l. Physical geography. l. Title.
GB54.5.C48 2005
910'.02- dc22 2004002035
Geosciences Executive Editor: Daniel E. Kaveney
Editor in Chief: John Challice
Vice President of Production and Manufacturing: David W Riccardi
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Art Studio: Precision Gmphics
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Photo Researcher: Picture Research and Editing, South Salem, NY
Photo Editor: Beth Boyd
Front Cover Image: True-colo1' satellite vie·w of the Pacific Northwest (see back cover). [Terra satellite image, August 11, 2001, courtesy of
MODIS Land Response Team, GSFCINASA; see http://terra.nasa.gov/]
Back Cover Image: Full Earth photo by Apollo 17 astronauts, December 1972. [NASA.]
© 2005, 2003, 2000, 1997 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pearson Prentice Hall
Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Earlier editions © 1994, 1992 by Macmillan Publishing Company, a division of Macmillan.
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ISBN 0-13-144196-5
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D~---~- V ..1 .. --.:~- ~L 1-.--:- n._ T • ..l
To all the students and teachers of Earth, our home planet,
and a sustainable future.
And to both our moms
for their inspiring lives and for all they have given us.
Earth is not ours, it is a treasure we hold in trust for
our children and their children.
-an ancient African Proverb
Brief Contents
1 Essentials of Geography 1
PART 1 The Energy-Atmosphere System 40
2 Solar Energy to Earth and the Seasons 4 3
3 Earth's Modern Atmosphere 65
4 Atmosphere and Surface Energy Balances 93
5 Global Temperatures 119
6 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations 14 3
PART 2 The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems 176
7 Water and Atmospheric Moisture 179
8 Weather 211
9 Water Resources 245
10 Global Climate Systems 2 7 5
PART 3 The Earth-Atmosphere Interface 320
11 The Dynamic Planet 32 3
12 Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism 3 57
13 Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement 399
14 River Systems and Landforms 429
15 Eolian Processes and Arid Landscapes 463
16 The Oceans, Coastal Processes, and Landforms 489
17 Glacial and Periglacial Processes and Landforms 519
PART4 Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes 554
18 The Geography of Soils 5 57
19 Ecosystem Essentials 5 87
20 Terrestrial Biomes 62 5
21 Earth and the Human Denominator 651
vi
Contents
Preface xv
1 Essentials of Geography 1
The Science of Geography 3
Geographic Analysis 3
The Geographic Continuum 5
Earth Systems Concepts 8
Systems Theory 8
Earth's Four "Spheres" 13
A Spherical Planet 13
Measuring Earth in 247 B.C. 15
Location and Time on Earth 16
Latimde 16
Longitude 18
Great Circles and Small Circles 19
Prime Meridian and Standard Time 22
Maps, Scales, and Projections 24 • News Report 2.1: The Nature of Order is Chaos 47
The Scale of Maps 2 5 • News Report 2.2: Monitoring Earth Radiation
Map Projections 26 Budget 53
Remote Sensing and GIS 28
Remote Sensing 2 8
3 Earth's Modern Atmosphere 65
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 32
Summary and Review 34 Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, and
• News Report 1.1: GPS: A Personal locator 21 Function 66
::L..!3
• News Report 1.2: Careers in GIS 34 Atmospheric Profile 66
The Scientific Method 6 Atmospheric Composition Criterion 68
y The Timely Search for longitude 20 Atmospheric Temperature Criterion 71
Thomas D. Jones, Ph.D, Astronaut, Atmospheric Fm1ction Criterion 71
Earth Observer, and Geographer 37 Variable Atmospheric Components 76
Namral Sources 76
Namral Factors That Affect Air Pollution 77
PART 1
Anthropogenic Pollution 78
The Energy-Atmosphere System 40 Benefits of the Clean Air Act 87
Summary and Review 88
2 Solar Energy to Earth and the • News Report 3.1: Falling Through the Atmosphere
The Highest Sky Dive 69
Seasons 43
• News Report 3.2: 1995 Nobel Chemistry Prize for
The Solar System, Sun, and Earth 44 Ozone Depletion Researchers 76
Solar System Formation and Structure 44 Stratospheric Ozone Losses: A
Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth 44 Worldwide Health Hazard 73
Solar Activity and Solar Wind 46 Acid Deposition: A Continuing Blight
Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy 48 on the Landscape 84
Intercepted Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere 49
The Seasons 53 4 Atmosphere and Surface Energy
Seasonality 53
Balances 93
Reasons for Seasons 54
Annual March of the Seasons 56 Energy Essentials 94
Summary and Review 60 Energy Pathways and Principles 94
vii
viii Contents
Driving Forces Within the Atmosphere 150
Pressure Gradient Force 151
Coriolis Force 152
J Friction Force 155
Atmospheric Patterns of Motion 15 5 ---..:;,
Primary High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Areas 155
Upper Atmospheric Circulation 160
Local Winds 163
Monsoonal Winds 165
Oceanic Currents 170
Surface Currents 170
Deep Currents 17 1
Summary and Review 172
• News Report 6.1: Corio lis, a Forceful Effect on
Drains? 154
• News Report 6.2: Jet Streams Affect Flight Times 162
• News Report 6.3: A Message in a Bottle and Rubber
Energy Balance in the Troposphere 100 ~ Duckies 171
The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming 100 Wind Power: An Energy Resource for
Clouds and Earth's "Greenhouse" 100 the Present and Future 167
Earth-Atmosphere Radiation Balance 102
Energy Balance at Earth's Surface 103
Daily Radiation Patterns 103 PART 2
Simplified Surface Energy Balance 104
The Water, Weather, and Climate
The Urban Environment 108
Summary and Review 114 Systems 176
Solar Energy Collection and
Concentration 109 7 Water and Atmospheric
Moisture 179
5 Global Temperatures 119
Water on Earth 180
Temperature Concepts and Measurement 120 Worldwide Equilibrium 180
Temperature Scales 120 Distribution of Earth's Water Today 181
Measuring Temperature 121 Unique Properties of Water 183
Principal Temperature Controls 121 Heat Properties 184
Latitude 122 Heat Properties of Water in Nature 186
Altitude 122 Humidity 187
Cloud Cover 123 Relative Humidity 187
Land-Water Heating Differences 124 Expressions of Relative Humidity 189
Earth's Temperature Patterns 128 Atmospheric Stability 192 --"'-""
January Temperature Map 128 Adiabatic Processes 192
July Temperature Map 131 Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions 195
Annual Temperature Range Map 134 Clouds and Fog 197
Summary and Review 138 Cloud Formation Processes 197
• News Report 5.1: Record Temperatures Suggest a Cloud Types and Identification 197
Greenhouse Warming 138 Fog 199
Air Temperature and the Human Summary and Review 204
Body 135 • News Report 7.1: Breaking Roads and Pipes and
Sinking Ships 184
6 Atmospheric and Oceanic • News Report 7.2: Harvesting Fog 204
Circulations 143
8 Weather 211
Wind Essentials 145
Air Pressure and Its Measurement 145 Air Masses 212
Wind: Description and Measurement 147 Air Masses Affecting North America 213
Global Winds 148 Air Mass Modification 214
Contents ix
Hurricane Camille, 1969: Water
Balance Analysis Points to Moisture Benefits 257
High Plains Aquifer Overdraft 263
10 Global Climate Systems 275
Earth's Climate System and Its Classification 276
Climate Components: Insolation, Temperature, Pressure,
Air Masses, and Precipitation 276
Classification of Climatic Regions 277
The Koppen Climate Classification System 281
Global Climate Patterns 283
Tropical Climates (A) 283
Tropical Rain Forest Climates (Af) 283
Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms 21 S __.,_,_, Tropical Monsoon Climates (Am) 287
Convergent Lifting 216 Tropical Savanna Climates (Aw) 287
Convectional Lifting 216 Mesothermal Climates (C) 289
Orographic Lifting 216 Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates
Frontal Lifting (Cold and Warm Fronts) 220 (Cfa, Cwa) 289
Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems 221 Marine West Coast Climates (Cfb, Cfc) 290
Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 222 Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates (Csa, Csb) 291
Analysis of Daily Weather Maps-Forecasting 224 Microthermal Climates (D) 296
Violent Weather 227 Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates
Thunderstorms 2 2 7 (Dfa, Dwa) 296
Tornadoes 230 Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates
Tropical Cyclones 23 3 (Dfb, Dwb) 297
Summary and Review 240 Subarctic Climates (Dfc, Dwc, Dwd) 297
Polar Climates (E) 301
• News Report 8.1: Mountains Set Precipitation
Tundra Climate (ET) 301
Records 217
Ice Cap Climate (EF) 302
Forecasting Atlantic Hurricanes 236
Polar Marine Climate (EM) 302
Tracy Smith, Research
Meteorologist 243 Dry Arid and Semiarid Climates (B) 303
Desert Characteristics 303
Hot Low-Latitude Desert Climates (BWh) 303
9 Water Resources 245
Cold Midlatitude Desert Climates (BWk) 304
The Hydrologic Cycle 246 ~ Hot Low-Latitude Steppe Climates (BSh) 304
A Hydrologic Cycle Model 246 Cold Midlatitude Steppe Climates (BSk) 307
Surface Water 247
Soil-Water-Budget Concept 248
The Soil-Water-Balance Equation 248
Sample Water Budgets 254
Water Budget and Water Resources 254
Groundwater Resources 259
Groundwater Profile and Movement 260
Aquifers, Wells, and Springs 260
Overuse of Groundwater 262
Pollution of Groundwater 265
Our Water Supply 266
Water Supply in the United States 267
Instream, Nonconsumptive, and Consumptive Uses 268
Future Considerations 269
Summary and Review 270
• News Report 9.1: Middle East Water Crisis: Running
on Empty 265
• News Report 9.2: Personal Water Use and Water
Measurements 267
