Geosynthetic Clay Liners for Waste Containment Facilities

244 Pages·2010·12.401 MB·English

by  Abdelmalek Bouazza (ed.), John J. Bowders (ed.)

GEOSYNTHETICCLAYLINERSFORWASTECONTAINMENTFACILITIES
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Geosynthetic Clay Liners for
Waste Containment Facilities
Editors
Abdelmalek Bouazza
DepartmentofCivilEngineering,MonashUniversity,Melbourne,
Victoria,Australia
John J. Bowders
DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofMissouri,
Columbia,Missouri,USA

© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Geosyntheticclaylinersforwastecontainmentfacilities/editedby
AbdelmalekBouazza&JohnJ.Bowders.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences.
ISBN978-0-415-46733-9(hardback:alk.paper)–ISBN978-0-203-85523-2(e-book) 1. Sanitary
landfills–Linings. 2. Claysoils–Permeability. 3. Geosynthetics. 4. Engineeredbarriersystems(Waste
disposal) I. Bouazza,Abdelmalek. II. Bowders,JohnJ.(JohnJoseph),1957–
TD795.7.G44752010
(cid:1)
628.44564—dc22
2009037858
Publishedby: CRCPress/Balkema
P.O.Box447,2300AKLeiden,TheNetherlands
e-mail:[email protected]
www.crcpress.com–www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk–www.balkema.nl
ISBN:978-0-415-46733-9(Hardback)
ISBN:978-0-203-85523-2(eBook)
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Table of Contents
Preface xi
ListofContributors xiii
1. Backgroundandoverviewofgeosyntheticclayliners 1
1 Introduction 1
2 Background 1
2.1 Bentonite 1
2.2 Geotextiles 2
2.3 Geomembranes 2
2.4 Otherassociatedmaterials 2
2.5 GCLmanufacturing 2
3 CurrentGCLproducts 4
3.1 NonreinforcedGCLs 4
3.2 ReinforcedGCLs 6
4 Testmethodsandproperties 6
4.1 Physicalproperties 6
4.2 Hydraulicproperties 7
4.3 Mechanicalproperties 8
4.4 Enduranceproperties 9
4.5 GenericspecificationforGCLs 10
5 Equivalencyissues 12
6 Summary 15
Acknowledgements 15
References 15
2. Durabilityandlifetimeofthegeotextilefibersofgeosyntheticclayliners 17
1 Introductionandbackground 17
2 Structureanddegradationofpolymerfibers 17
2.1 PolymersusedforGCLfiberreinforcement 18
2.2 FiberconfigurationofGCLreinforcement 18
2.3 Oxidativeeffectsonpolymerstructure 18

2.3.1 Tertiarycarbonatoms 19
2.3.2 Crystallinity 19
2.3.3 Orientation 19
3 Stabilizationofpolypropylene(andpolyethylene)fibers 19
4 Antioxidantsdepletionmechanisms 20
4.1 Chemicalreactions 20
4.2 Physicalloss 20
4.3 Specificsurfacearea 21
5 Externalenvironmentaleffectsonoxidation 21
5.1 Energylevel 21
5.2 Oxygenconcentration 21
5.3 Liquidchemistry 22
5.4 Appliedfiberstresses 22
5.5 Annealing 22
V
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
VI TableofContents
6 Durabilityevaluationandspecification 23
6.1 Performancetesting 23
6.2 Incubationmethodsforsubsequentindextesting 25
6.3 Indextestmethodsandprocedures 25
7 Geomembranesandgeofilm 26
8 Summaryandconclusions 26
8.1 Polymerstructure,degradationandstabilization 26
8.2 Laboratoryperformanceincubationandtesting 27
8.3 Indextestingwithasuggestedspecification 27
8.4 Conclusionandrecommendation 27
Acknowledgement 28
References 28
3. MineralogyandengineeringpropertiesofBentonite 31
1 Introduction 31
2 Mineralogyofsmectite 31
2.1 Crystallinestructure 31
2.2 Morphologyandfabric 33
2.3 Layercharge 34
2.4 Exchangeablecations 35
2.5 Sodiumactivationofbentonites 36
3 Adsorptionandswellingbehavior 37
3.1 Short-rangehydrationmechanisms 37
3.2 Crystallineandosmoticswellingregimes 38
3.3 Crystallineswelling 38
3.4 Osmoticswelling 43
4 Engineeringpropertiesandtheirmeasurement 44
4.1 Mineralogicalanalysis 45
4.2 Cationexchangecapacity 45
4.3 Surfacearea 47
4.4 Particleandgranulesizedistribution 47
4.5 Watercontent 48
4.6 Swellindex 48
4.7 pH,electricalconductivityandcarbonatecontent 50
4.8 Fluidloss 50
5 Closingremarks 50
References 50
4. Hydraulicconductivityofgeosyntheticclayliners 55
1 Geosyntheticclaylinersinbottomlinersandtopcovers 55
2 Definitions 55
2.1 Hydraulicconductivity 55
2.2 Unsaturatedhydraulicconductivity 57
2.3 Permittivity 58
2.4 Intrinsicpermeability 59
3 Hydraulicconductivitytesting 60
3.1 Typesofpermeameters 61
3.2 Criticalissues 62
4 IntactGCLs 63
4.1 WhydoGCLsprovideextremelylowlevelsofhydraulicconductivity? 63
4.2 HydraulicconductivityofdifferenttypesofGCLs 64
4.3 Testingconditions 66
5 OverlappingGCLsandotherspecialsituations 67
5.1 OverlappingGCLs 67
5.2 Durabilityagainstenvironmentaleffects 68
6 Chemicalcompatibility 70
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
TableofContents VII
6.1 Clay-chemicalandbentonite-chemicalinteractions 70
6.2 Considerationofthetestingconditions 71
6.3 Effectsofinorganicchemicals–concentrationandvalenceofcations 72
6.4 Effectsofwasteleachates 76
6.5 Effectofthesequenceofpermeants 76
6.6 Modifiedbentonites 80
Acknowledgments 81
References 81
5. ContaminanttransportthroughGCL-basedlinersystems 85
1 Introduction 85
2 ModelingcontaminanttransportthroughGCLs 85
2.1 Advection 87
2.2 Diffusion 87
2.3 Sorption 87
3 EstablishingdiffusionandsorptionparametersforGCLs 87
3.1 Experimentalproceduresanddatainterpretation 87
3.2 Specifiedvolumediffusion(SVD)test:Inorganiccontaminants 90
3.3 Constantstressdiffusion(CSD)apparatus:Inorganiccontaminants 90
3.4 Volatileorganiccompound(VOC)diffusiontesting 91
4 Factorsinfluencingdiffusionandsorptioncoefficients 91
4.1 Effectofe ondiffusioncoefficient:Inorganiccontaminants 91
B
4.1.1 EffectoftypeofGCLmanufactureoninorganicdiffusioncoefficients 92
4.2 DifferenttypesofdissolvedcontaminantsincontactwiththeGCL 92
4.2.1 Inorganiccontaminants 92
4.2.2 Organiccontaminants 93
4.2.3 Effectoftemperatureonvolatileorganiccompounddiffusionand
sorptioncoefficients 94
4.3 Constantstressvs.specifiedvolumediffusiontesting 94
5 Summaryofdiffusionandsorptioncoefficientstouseforpreliminarydesigns 94
6 ContaminantmigrationassessmentsofGCLlinersystems 96
6.1 EquivalencyofGCLandCCLlinersystems 96
6.2 AssessingGCL/CCLequivalencyformunicipalsolidwastelandfills:Example 97
7 Conclusions 102
References 102
6. Chemico-osmosisandsolutetransportthroughGeosyntheticclayliners 105
1 Introduction 105
2 Thermodynamicsofirreversibleprocesses 106
3 Experimentaldata 111
4 Physicalinterpretationoftransportparameters 115
5 RoleplayedbyosmoticphenomenaincontaminanttransportthroughGCLs 120
6 Conclusions 123
References 124
7. Gaspermeabilityofgeosyntheticclayliners 127
1 Introduction 127
2 Background 127
3 Gastransportduetoadvection 128
4 Gaspermeameter 130
5 Gaspermeability 130
5.1 Effectofmoisturecontent 131
5.2 Effectofhydrationanddesiccation 133
5.3 Effectofwet-drycyclesandionexchange 135
6 Conclusions 141
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
VIII TableofContents
References 141
8. Internalandinterfaceshearstrengthofgeosyntheticclayliners 143
1 Introduction 143
2 Materials 144
2.1 GCLreinforcementtypes 144
2.2 Geomembranetexturingtypes 145
3 GCLShearstrengthtestingequipment 145
3.1 Shearstrengthtestingalternatives 145
3.2 Specimensizeforthedirectsheardevice 146
3.3 GCLspecimenconfinementforthedirectsheardevice 147
3.4 Normalandshearloadapplicationforthedirectsheardevice 149
4 Testingprocedures 150
4.1 Moistureconditioning 150
4.2 Shearingprocedures 151
5 GCLInternalshearstrength 153
5.1 Shearstress-displacementbehavior 153
5.2 Preliminaryshearstrengthoverview 154
5.3 VariablesaffectingGCLinternalshearstrength 155
5.3.1 Effectofnormalstress 155
5.3.2 GCLReinforcement 156
5.3.3 Moistureconditioning 158
5.3.4 Sheardisplacementrate 158
5.4 GCLinternalshearstrengthvariability 160
6 GCL-GMInterfaceshearstrength 160
6.1 Shearstress-displacementbehavior 160
6.2 PreliminaryGCL-GMinterfaceshearstrengthoverview 162
6.3 VariablesaffectingGCLinternalshearstrength 162
6.3.1 Normalstresseffects 162
6.3.2 EffectsofGCLreinforcementtypeandGMpolymer 163
6.3.3 EffectofGMtexturing 163
6.3.4 Moistureconditioning 164
6.3.5 Sheardisplacementrate 164
6.4 GCLinternalshearstrengthvariability 165
7 Laboratoryandfieldshearstrengthcomparisons 165
8 Conclusions 166
References 166
9. Slopestabilitywithgeosyntheticclayliners 169
1 Introduction 169
2 Methodsofanalysis 170
2.1 Simplifiedwedgeprocedures 171
2.2 Possiblefailuresurfaces 171
2.3 Representativecross-sectionsandthree-dimensionalgeometries 171
2.4 Effectivenormalstresses 172
2.5 Displacementandstraincompatibility 172
2.6 Seismicloads 173
3 Designcriteria 174
4 DesignshearstrengthforGCLs 176
4.1 Unconsolidatedversusconsolidatedbentonite 176
4.2 Undrainedversusdrainedshear 177
4.3 Peakversusresidualshearstrength 180
4.4 Internalversusinterfaceshearstrength 182
4.5 Summaryofdesignshearstrength 184
5 Approachestomitigatestabilityproblems 184
5.1 Flatteningslope 185
5.2 Buttressingslope 185
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
TableofContents IX
5.3 Reinforcingslope 185
5.4 Reducingfluidpressures 185
5.5 Replacingweakshearsurfaces 185
5.6 Reducingconsequencesoffailure 185
6 Designexamples 186
6.1 Examplecoverslope 186
6.1.1 Designcheckforbasecase 186
6.1.2 Designcheckforconservativeandextremecases 190
6.2 Examplebaselinerslope 192
6.2.1 Designcheckforfinalclosuregeometry 193
6.2.2 Designcheckforinterimwastefillinggeometry 194
6.3 Examplelinerconstruction 198
7 Conclusions 199
References 200
10. Hydrologicperformanceoffinalcoverscontaining 203
1 Introduction 203
2 CoversrelyingsolelyonaGCL 203
2.1 GeorgswerderstudyinGermany 203
2.2 Esch-BelvalstudyinLuxembourg 205
2.3 AurachstudyinGermany 206
2.4 WisconsinstudyinUSA 206
3 CoverswithaGCL-compositebarrier 207
3.1 WisconsinstudyinUSA 207
3.2 CaliforniastudyinUSA 207
3.3 OregonstudyinUSA 208
4 Practicalimplications 208
4.1 Cationexchangeandhydraulicconductivity 208
4.2 Promotinghydrationandpreventingdehydration 209
4.3 Conditionsprecludingcationexchangeandincreasesinhydraulicconductivity 209
4.4 RecommendedusageofGCLsinfinalcovers 211
Acknowledgement 211
References 211
11. Oxygendiffusionthroughgeosyntheticclayliners 213
1 Introduction 213
2 Background 213
3 Oxygendiffusionmeasurement 214
4 Oxygendiffusioncoefficient 215
5 Concludingremarks 221
References 221
12. FieldobservationsofGCLbehaviour 223
1 Introduction 223
2 GCLperformanceincompositelinersystems 223
3 Casehistoriesoffieldperformance 224
3.1Physicalintegrity 224
3.2Containmentcapability 231
4 Conclusions 237
References 237
Authorindex 239
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Preface
Geosyntheticclaylinershavetakenaprominentroleincivilengineeringinfrastructure,inpartic-
ular, in the waste containment industry. Increasingly stringent regulation of pollution and waste
productionworldwidehasdriventheneedtoisolatecontaminantsposingathreattohumanand
environmentalhealthbyusingengineeredbarriersystems.Overthepasttwodecades,geosynthetic
claylinershavegainedwidespreadacceptanceforuseinsuchbarriersystems.Nowadays,theyare
oftenusedasacomponentofprimaryandsecondarybaselinersorfinalcoversystemsinmunicipal
solid-wastelandfillsaswellasinregulatedindustrialstorageandminingwaste-disposalfacilities.
This book gives a comprehensive and authoritative review of the current state of practice on
geosynthetic clay liners in waste containments. It provides an insight into individual materials
(bentoniteandtheassociatedgeosynthetics)andthemanufacturingprocess.Thisisfollowedbythe
coverageofimportanttopicssuchashydraulicconductivity,chemicalcompatibility,contaminant
transport,gasmigration,shearstrengthandslopestability,andfieldperformance.
Theideaofthisbookgelledwhenthefirsteditor,Bouazza,spentasabbaticalwithBowdersat
theUniversityofMissouriin1999.Weoriginallythoughtourprofessionlackedacomprehensive
documentonthebackground,behaviourandapplicationsoftheserelativelynewlow-permeability
barriers.Thisbookhasbeenalongtimeincomingandmanydevelopmentsinourunderstandingof
geosyntheticclaylinersandintheproductsthemselveshaveoccurredsowehaveaskedsomeofthe
leadingpeopleingeosyntheticclaylinersresearchandapplicationstocontributetheirexpertisefor
thistreatise,whichwehopewillconstituteavaluablereferenceintheyearstocomeforpractitioners
andmanufacturersaswellasresearchers.Weareextremelyindebtedandmuchappreciativeofthe
timeandeffortofeachofthecontributingauthors. Onlythroughtheirwillingnesstosharetheir
knowledge is this book made possible. Finally, we wish to express our appreciation and thanks
tothereviewersfortheirhighlycompetentefforts.Lastbutnotleast,wewouldliketogratefully
acknowledgethelong-suffering,patienceandencouragementofoureditor,Mr.JanjaapBlomof
TaylorandFrancispublishers.
AbdelmalekBouazza,MonashUniversity,Melbourne,Victoria,Australia
JohnJ.Bowders,UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,Missouri,USA

XI
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Contributors
CRAIG.H.BENSON,Professor,DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,University
ofWashington,Seattle,USA
ABDELMALEK BOUAZZA,Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash
University,Melbourne,Victoria,Australia
JOHN J. BOWDERS Jr, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,USA
ANDREADOMINIJANNI,ResearchFellow,DITAG,PolitecnicodiTorino,Torino,Italy
WILL P. GATES, Research Fellow, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University,
Melbourne,Australia
ROBERT B. GILBERT, Professor, Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental
Engineering,UniversityofTexas,Austin,USA
Y. GRACE HSUAN, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Drexel
University,Philadelphia,USA
TAKESHIKATSUMI,AssociateProfessor,GSGES,KyotoUniversity,Kyoto,Japan
EDWARD KAVAZANJIAN Jr, Associate Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental and
SustainableEngineering,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,USA
GEORGER.KOERNER,DirectorDesignate,GeosyntheticInstitute,Folsom,USA
ROBERTM.KOERNER,Professor,Director,GeosyntheticInstitute,Folsom,USA
CRAIGB.LAKE, AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofCivilandResourceEngineering,Dalhousie
University,Halifax,Canada
WILLIAMJ.LIKOS,AssociateProfessor,DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,
UniversityofMissouri,Columbia,USA

MARIOMANASSERO,Professor,DITAG,PolitecnicodiTorino,Torino,Italy
JOHNS.McCARTNEY,AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofCivil,EnvironmentalandArchitec-
turalEngineering,UniversityofColorado,Boulder,USA
R.KERRYROWE,Professor,DepartmentofCivilEngineering,Queen’sUniversity,Kingston,
Canada
J. SCALIA, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin,
Madison,USA
XIII
© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC