Geospatial Technologies for Land Degradation Assessment and Management

430 Pages·2018·31.415 MB·English

by  R S Dwivedi

Geospatial Technologies
for Land Degradation
Assessment and
Management

Geospatial Technologies
for Land Degradation
Assessment and
Management
R. S. Dwivedi
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Dedicated to
my beloved wife
Asha

Contents
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................xvii
List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................xxix
Foreword ....................................................................................................................................xxxi
Preface .......................................................................................................................................xxxiii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................xxxv
Author ......................................................................................................................................xxxvii
1 An Introduction to Geospatial Technology ......................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Geospatial Technology ....................................................................................1
1.2 History of Remote Sensing ..........................................................................................2
1.3 Electromagnetic Radiation ..........................................................................................3
1.3.1 Particle Model ...................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Wave Model ......................................................................................................3
1.3.3 Amplitude .........................................................................................................4
1.3.4 Phase ..................................................................................................................4
1.3.5 Polarization .......................................................................................................4
1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum ..........................................................................................6
1.4.1 The Ultraviolet Spectrum ...............................................................................6
1.4.2 The Visible Spectrum ......................................................................................6
1.4.3 The Infrared Spectrum ...................................................................................6
1.4.4 The Microwave Spectrum...............................................................................7
1.5 Energy–Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere .......................................................7
1.5.1 Scattering ..........................................................................................................8
1.5.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering ..........................................................................8
1.5.1.2 Mie Scattering ...................................................................................8
1.5.1.3 Nonselective Scattering ...................................................................8
1.5.2 Absorption ........................................................................................................8
1.5.3 Emission ............................................................................................................9
1.6 Atmospheric Windows .................................................................................................9
1.6.1 Atmospheric Windows in Optical Region ...................................................9
1.6.2 Atmospheric Windows in Microwave Region ...........................................10
1.7 Energy–Matter Interactions with the Terrain .........................................................11
1.7.1 Reflection Mechanism ...................................................................................11
1.7.2 Transmission Mechanism .............................................................................12
1.7.3 Absorption Mechanism ................................................................................12
1.7.4 Emission Mechanism ....................................................................................13
1.8 EMR Laws ....................................................................................................................13
1.8.1 Planck’s Law ...................................................................................................13
1.8.2 Stefan–Boltzmann Law .................................................................................14
1.8.3 Wein’s Radiation Law ....................................................................................15
1.8.4 Rayleigh–Jeans Law .......................................................................................16
1.8.5 Kirchhoff’s Law ..............................................................................................16
vii
viii Contents
1.9 Spectral Response Pattern .........................................................................................16
1.10 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing .................................................................................17
1.11 Remote Sensing Process .............................................................................................20
1.11.1 The Source of Illumination ...........................................................................20
1.11.2 The Sensor .......................................................................................................20
1.11.3 Platforms .........................................................................................................20
1.11.4 Data Reception ...............................................................................................21
1.11.5 Data Product Generation ..............................................................................21
1.11.6 Data Analysis/Interpretation .......................................................................22
1.11.7 Data/Information Storage ............................................................................22
1.11.8 Archival and Distribution ............................................................................22
1.12 Geographical Information System ............................................................................23
1.12.1 Components of GIS ........................................................................................24
1.12.1.1 Hardware .........................................................................................24
1.12.1.2 Software ...........................................................................................24
1.12.1.3 Data ..................................................................................................25
1.13 Global Navigation Satellite Systems .........................................................................25
1.13.1 GPS Segments .................................................................................................26
1.13.1.1 Space Segment ................................................................................26
1.13.1.2 Control Segment .............................................................................26
1.13.1.3 The User Segment ..........................................................................27
1.13.2 Operating Principle of GPS ..........................................................................27
1.13.3 Navigation .......................................................................................................28
1.13.3.1 Stand-Alone Satellite Navigation .................................................28
1.13.3.2 Differential GNSS Navigation ......................................................29
1.13.3.3 Network-Assisted GNSS Navigation ...........................................29
1.13.3.4 Carrier-Phase Differential (Kinematic) GPS ..............................29
1.14 Organization of This Book ........................................................................................29
References ...............................................................................................................................30
2 Passive Remote Sensing ......................................................................................................31
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................31
2.2 Remote Sensing Platforms .........................................................................................32
2.2.1 Airborne Platforms ........................................................................................32
2.2.2 Spaceborne Platforms ....................................................................................34
2.2 .2.1 Geosynchronous Satellites ............................................................34
2.2.2.2 Polar Orbiting Satellites .................................................................34
2.3 Passive Sensors ............................................................................................................35
2.3.1 The Optics .......................................................................................................35
2.3.2 Detectors .........................................................................................................37
2.3.2.1 Quantum Detectors .......................................................................38
2.3.2.2 Photoemissive Detectors ...............................................................38
2.3.2.3 Semiconductor Detectors ..............................................................38
2.3.2.4 Photoconductive Detectors ...........................................................38
2.3.2.5 Photovoltaic Detectors ...................................................................39
2.3.2.6 Thermal Detectors ..........................................................................39
2.4 Optical Sensors ............................................................................................................40
2.4.1 Conventional Photographic Cameras .........................................................40
2.4.2 Digital Aerial Cameras..................................................................................41
Contents ix
2.4.3 Video Cameras ...............................................................................................41
2.4.4 Radiometers ....................................................................................................41
2.4.4.1 Radiometers Operating in Optical Region .................................41
2.4.4.2 Radiometers Operating in Microwave Region ..........................43
2.4.4.3 Imaging Spectrometer ...................................................................46
2.5 Resolution of a Sensor ................................................................................................47
2.5.1 Spatial Resolution ..........................................................................................48
2.5.2 Spectral Resolution ........................................................................................49
2.5.3 Radiometric Resolution .................................................................................49
2.5.4 Temporal Resolution ......................................................................................50
2.5.5 Angular Resolution .......................................................................................50
2.6 Spaceborne Missions with Passive Sensors .............................................................50
2.6.1 The Landsat Mission .....................................................................................50
2.6.2 The SPOT Mission..........................................................................................51
2.6.3 Pleiades Mission .............................................................................................52
2.6.4 The Indian Earth Observation Mission ......................................................53
2.6.4.1 Resourcesat-1 ...................................................................................53
2.6.4.2 Resourcesat-2...................................................................................53
2.6.4.3 Resourcesat-2A ...............................................................................53
2.6.5 The Earth Observing System Mission ........................................................54
2.6.5.1 Terra (EO-AM) ................................................................................54
2.6.5.2 Aqua (EOS PM-1) ............................................................................54
2.6.6 Earth Observing-1 Mission (EO-1) ...............................................................56
2.6.7 RapidEye .........................................................................................................56
2.6.8 Hyperspatial Resolution Earth Missions ....................................................57
2.6.8.1 WorldView Mission ........................................................................57
2.6.8.2 Cartosat Mission .............................................................................58
2.6.8.3 GeoEye-1 ..........................................................................................59
2.6.9 Passive Microwave Missions ........................................................................60
2.6.9.1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
AMSU-A ..........................................................................................60
2.6.9.2 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program .................................60
2.6.9.3 Aqua (EO: PM-1) .............................................................................61
2.6.9.4 Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity Mission .................................61
2.6.9.5 Soil Moisture Active Passive Mission..........................................63
2.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................64
References ...............................................................................................................................64
3 Active Remote Sensing ........................................................................................................67
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................67
3.2 Active Microwave Sensors .........................................................................................67
3.2.1 I maging Sensors .............................................................................................67
3.2.1.1 Real Aperture Radar ......................................................................68
3.2.1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar .............................................................71
3.2.1.3 The Operating Modes of SAR .......................................................73
3.2.2 N on-imaging Microwave Sensors ...............................................................75
3.2.2.1 Scatterometers .................................................................................76
3.2.2.2 Radar Altimeter ..............................................................................78
3.3 Spaceborne Radars Systems ......................................................................................80