Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers

206 Pages·2023·8.671 MB·English

by  Sandeep Narayan Kundu

Sandeep Narayan Kundu
Geoscience
for Petroleum
Engineers
Geoscience for Petroleum Engineers
Sandeep Narayan Kundu
Geoscience for Petroleum
Engineers
Sandeep Narayan Kundu
Department of Geology
Ravenshaw University
Cuttack, India
ISBN 978-981-19-7639-1 ISBN 978-981-19-7640-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7640-7
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
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I dedicate this book to all Geoscientists and
Engineers who are continuously
endeavouring to secure energy for our future
to sustain and improve our wellbeing.
Preface
Geoscience is the study of the planet Earth and its sub-systems. Its holistic under-
standing is essential for its application in petroleum exploration. As most engineers
and geologists do not specifically train in the subject, but eventually end up working
for the petroleum industry, it is essential that they must be exposed to the funda-
mental aspects of the subject at the undergraduate level. This is why several engi-
neering and geoscience undergraduate programs have started including petroleum
geoscience as an elective subject.
Petroleum Geoscience is an important component of geoscience which essen-
tially deals with a major component of the carbon cycle. As petroleum engineers
are tasked with drilling and production of hydrocarbons, having an understanding
of geoscience is critical to their effective collaboration with geoscientists in any
organization. As a petroleum engineers’ job starts with inputs from a geoscientist,
it is imperative that they develop the perspective of a geoscientist to be able to
comprehend their inputs. Most engineers possess a strong understanding of rocks
from a chemical and/or mechanical perspective, but they seldom have a geological
perspective. Having this perspective is highly beneficial for effective and informed
decision-making. This book is aimed at providing engineers and budding geologists,
a foundational perspective of geoscience that is required for hydrocarbon exploration.
Geoscience is a vast subject and has several sub-disciplines, which revolve
around all rock types (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary). However, as hydro-
carbon accumulations are mostly confined to sedimentary basins, the focus of this
book shall be on sedimentary rocks. Geological processes within a sedimentary
basin, since the formation of the basin, to the present-day, are critical to identifi-
cation of petroleum systems. Sedimentary environments are complex as they are
shaped by several concurrent processes, which run at different periodicities. Weath-
ering, erosion, transportation, and deposition happen in tandem with other geological
processes like tectonics, eustasy, and isostasy. All these processes, despite being very
different from each other, are intricately related in time and space. As we increas-
ingly look at Earth from a systems perspective, geologists and engineers must gain
vii
viii Preface
a sound understanding of petroleum systems, in different geological settings. Sedi-
mentary geology and basin analysis are therefore of paramount importance to the
understanding of basin evolution and identification of petroleum systems.
Identification of petroleum systems require thorough scientific investigation,
which involves collection of rock specimens, their laboratory analysis, and their
direct and indirect interpretation. From early field-based investigations, the explo-
ration process progresses through laboratory based studies to establish the phys-
ical and mechanical properties of the rocks in the subsurface. These are then inte-
grated to build a subsurface geological model. Non-destructive indirect methods, like
geophysical methods (gravity and magnetics), are deployed at the basin scale, which
is later followed by seismic methods for smaller focus areas. Geophysical methods
are the backbone of modern petroleum exploration, and both engineers and geolo-
gists must be aware of how geophysical data is acquired, processed and interpreted.
Geophysics also plays an important role in post-exploration stages like development
and production.
Most universities and institutions develop engineers and geoscientists, but only a
few, who opt for specializing in petroleum exploration and production, are exposed to
geoscience. In reality, many who did not opt for this specialization still end up being
employed with oil companies. This book, “Petroleum Geoscience for Engineers”,
aims to fill the gap in the education of such professionals. The book is expected to
be an easy self-read for gaining insights on the geoscientific activities practiced in
the oil and gas industry. The book, in addition, shall also serve as a reference for
petroleum related elective subjects, at the undergraduate level.
The book has 12 Chapters in total. The first six chapters deal with the fundamentals
of geoscience. The next six chapters deal with the application of these fundamentals
for hydrocarbon exploration. Each chapter is written in a way that the concepts are
lucidly explained. The educator can plan his lectures by following the sequence in
which the chapters are written in this book with the liberty to add further infor-
mation from the advanced suggested readings provided at the end of each chapter.
The preceding chapter scaffolds the next one, transitioning information from the
former to the latter. Learners can always expand their horizons by exploring the
suggested further readings. Throughout this book, the term ‘petroleum’, ‘oil and
gas’, and ‘hydrocarbons’ are interchangeably used and are therefore deemed as
synonyms. The author hopes that this book serves as a primer on geoscience and
petroleum exploration for students, who aim for a career with the petroleum and
related industry.
Cuttack, India Prof. Dr. Sandeep Narayan Kundu
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would thank the National University of Singapore for providing me the
opportunity to introduce Geoscience and Petroleum Exploration to the students
pursuing undergraduate programs in Science and Engineering. I would like to thank
the South East Asian Petroleum Exploration Society (SEAPEX) and the Economic
Development Board (EDB) of Singapore for funding my position at NUS for over 6
years. This provided the opportunity to focus on academic research and to conduct
numerous field trips in the region, which have both supported the sourcing of rich
inputs into this book. A special thanks to Dr Grahame Oliver, former Senior Lecturer
at NUS, for constantly inspiring and supporting me in the endeavors to author this
book.
Secondly, I would like to thank all my students, whose inquisitiveness for the
subject was a constant inspiration, and this provided the needed drive to complete
this book. My ex-colleagues at NUS too, were also very supportive of the idea of
this book.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents Dr. Manmatha Kundu and Dr. Binodini
Patra who founded the academic fervour in me. Their illustrative academic career
was an inspiration for me and helped me switch from the corporate world to the
noble profession of teaching and research. My wife, Priyanka, daughter Shreya, and
son Shakti, need a special mention, as without their support this book would never
have seen daylight.
Prof. Dr. Sandeep Narayan Kundu
ix
Contents
1 Planet Earth .................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................. 1
1.2 Origin of Earth ........................................... 2
1.2.1 Nebular Hypothesis ............................... 2
1.2.2 Planetesimal Hypothesis ........................... 2
1.2.3 Tidal or Gaseous Hypothesis ....................... 3
1.2.4 Protoplanet Hypothesis ............................ 3
1.2.5 Big-Bang Theory and the Space–Time Singularity ..... 4
1.3 Age of Earth ............................................. 5
1.3.1 Early Methods ................................... 5
1.3.2 Radioactive Dating ................................ 6
1.3.3 Geological Time Scale ............................. 8
1.4 Earth’s Structure ......................................... 9
1.4.1 The Crust ........................................ 10
1.4.2 The Mantle ...................................... 12
1.4.3 The Core ........................................ 12
1.5 Earth System & Interactive Processes ....................... 13
1.5.1 The Earth System ................................. 13
1.5.2 Interactive Processes .............................. 13
1.6 Summary ............................................... 15
Further Readings ............................................... 15
2 Crustal Processes and Materials ................................ 17
2.1 Introduction ............................................. 17
2.1.1 Crustal Processes ................................. 17
2.1.2 Isostasy ......................................... 23
2.2 Crustal Materials ......................................... 25
2.2.1 Minerals ......................................... 25
2.2.2 Rocks ........................................... 28
2.2.3 The Rock Cycle .................................. 30
2.3 Summary ............................................... 30
Further Readings ............................................... 31
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xii Contents
3 Sedimentary Basins ........................................... 33
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 33
3.2 Basin Controls ........................................... 33
3.2.1 Geodynamics .................................... 33
3.2.2 Climatic Factors .................................. 34
3.3 Basin Classification ....................................... 35
3.3.1 Continental Rift Basins ............................ 35
3.3.2 Flexure Basins ................................... 36
3.3.3 Strike-Slip and Wrench Basins ...................... 38
3.3.4 Intra-Cratonic Basins .............................. 38
3.4 Basin Analysis ........................................... 39
3.4.1 Sedimentological Analysis ......................... 40
3.4.2 Stratigraphic Analysis ............................. 40
3.4.3 Structural Analysis ................................ 40
3.4.4 Geohistory ....................................... 41
3.5 Summary ............................................... 42
Further Readings ............................................... 42
4 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks .............................. 43
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 43
4.2 Weathering .............................................. 44
4.2.1 Physical Weathering .............................. 45
4.2.2 Chemical Weathering .............................. 45
4.2.3 Biological Weathering ............................. 46
4.2.4 Climatic Factors .................................. 46
4.3 Erosion, Transportation and Deposition ...................... 47
4.3.1 Gravity Erosion .................................. 47
4.3.2 Fluvial Erosion ................................... 48
4.3.3 Aeolian Erosion .................................. 49
4.3.4 Glacial Erosion ................................... 50
4.4 Lithification ............................................. 51
4.4.1 Compaction ...................................... 51
4.4.2 Cementation ..................................... 52
4.4.3 Diagenesis ....................................... 52
4.5 Sedimentary Rock and Types .............................. 52
4.5.1 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks ......................... 52
4.5.2 Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks ..................... 57
4.6 Summary ............................................... 59
Further Readings ............................................... 59
5 Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Structures ....................... 61
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 61
5.2 Stratigraphy ............................................. 63
5.2.1 Lithostratigraphy ................................. 63
5.2.2 Biostratigraphy ................................... 64
5.2.3 Chrono-Stratigraphy .............................. 65