Table Of ContentRelated titles
DeepGeologicalDisposalofRadioactiveWaste
(ISBN978-0-08-045010-0)
HandbookofAdvancedRadioactiveWasteConditioningTechnologies
(ISBN978-1-84569-626-9)
AdvancedSeparationTechniquesforNuclearFuelReprocessingandRadioactiveWaste
Treatment
(ISBN978-1-84569-501-9)
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy
Geological Repository
Systems for Safe Disposal
of Spent Nuclear Fuels and
Radioactive Waste
Second Edition
Edited by
✝
Michael J. Apted and Joonhong Ahn
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List of contributors
✝
Joonhong Ahn University California, Berkeley, CA, United States
KjellAndersson✝ Karita Research AB,T€aby, Sweden
Michael J.Apted INTERAInc.,Denver, CA,UnitedStates
R. Arthur INTERAInc., Austin, TX, United States
WillyAspinall University of Bristol, Bristol, UnitedKingdom
B.D. Begg Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas
Heights, NSW, Australia
KelvinR. Berryman GNS Science, Lower Hutt,New Zealand
Martin Birgersson Clay Technology AB,Lund,Sweden
Ingo Blechschmidt National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste -
NAGRA, Wettingen, Switzerland
Patrick V. Brady All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,
United States
Neil Chapman MCM Environmental Services Ltd, Bristol, United Kingdom
Kate J.Clark GNS Science, Lower Hutt, NewZealand
James Conca UFA Ventures, Inc., Richland, WA, United States
Ian Crossland Crossland Consulting, Nympsfield, United Kingdom
Geoffrey A. Freeze All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,
United States
D.J. Gregg Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas
Heights, NSW, Australia
Ernest L. Hardin All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,
United States
MagnusHedstr€om Clay Technology AB,Lund,Sweden
J.C. Helton Arizona State University, UnitedStates
✝Deceased.
xvi Listofcontributors
Thea Hincks University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
Mikael B€oggild Jensen Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (retired), Stockholm,
Sweden
Ola Karnland Clay TechnologyAB, Lund, Sweden
John H.Kessler J Kessler and Associates, LLC, Charlotte, NC, United States
Raziuddin Khaleel INTERAIncorporated, Richland, WA, United States
FraserKing IntegrityCorrosion ConsultingLtd., Nanaimo, BC, Canada
JanetKotra U.S.NuclearRegulatoryCommission,Washington,DC,UnitedStates
Matthew W. Kozak INTERA,Inc., Boulder, CO,United States
Kristopher L. Kuhlman All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,
UnitedStates
Robert J. MacKinnon All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,
UnitedStates
Martin Mazurek University ofBern, Bern, Switzerland
Tim McCartin U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC,
UnitedStates
WilliamJ.McMahon CH2MHILLPlateauRemediationCompany,Richland,WA,
UnitedStates
SunilMehta INTERAIncorporated, Richland, WA, United States
Olli Okko Radiationand Nuclear Safety Authority (STUK), Helsinki,Finland
C.J. Sallaberry Sandia National Laboratories, United States
David C. Sassani All at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,
UnitedStates
EllieScourse UniversityofBristol,Bristol,UnitedKingdom;MCMEnvironmental
Services Ltd, Bristol, United Kingdom
Anders Sj€oland Svensk K€arnbr€anslehanteringAB, Stockholm, Sweden
SteveSparks University ofBristol, Bristol,United Kingdom
PeterN. Swift Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM,UnitedStates
Hiroyasu Takase QJ Science, Yokohama, Japan
HiroyukiUmeki Japan AtomicEnergy Agency (now Nuclear WasteManagement
Organization ofJapan, Tokyo,Japan), Tokai, Japan
E.R. Vance Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas
Heights, NSW, Australia
Listofcontributors xvii
JuhaniVira Former Research Directorat Posiva Oy, Helsinki, Finland
Michael D.Voegele Las Vegas,NV, United States
Stratis Vomvoris National Cooperative for the Disposal of Radioactive Waste -
NAGRA, Wettingen, Switzerland
Thilo von Berlepsch DBE Technology GmbH, Peine, Germany
GordonWittmeyer SouthwestResearchInstitute,SanAntonio,TX,UnitedStates
W. Zhou INTERA Inc., Austin, TX,UnitedStates
Preface to the second edition
Myfriend,colleague,andcoeditorJoonhongAhnpassedawayinJune2016.Joonhong
wasapolymath(anoverusedaccolade,buttrueinhiscase)inthemidstofthisever-
changing,ever-expandingfieldofsafemanagementanddisposalofradioactivemate-
rials.Manytopicsweretouchedbyhisintellect,frombasicnucleonicstonewreactor
designtosystem-levelthinkinginoptimizationofwastegeneration,storage,transpor-
tation,andgeologicaldisposal.Ourswasagoodpartnership,whereourexpertiseand
experiencesmeshedandcomplementedeachother’s.Weagreedmoreoftenthannot,
but I learned to sharpen my technical arguments much more tightly in those areas
where we differed and debated. His family, students, friends, and coworkers are the
poorer with his untimelydeath.
Ialsodrawattentiontotheuntimelydeathofanotherauthorinthisvolume,Kjell
Andersson.Kjell was animportant mentor tome. He helped me understand the vital
roleofanindependent,technicallycompetentregulatorintheoverallprocessofpublic
acceptance for geological disposal of radioactive waste. I will miss his wise insights
and advice.
Withrespecttothissecondeditionofourbook,Joonhong’sstronginterestwasto
both update papers and broaden the scope to reflect the changing field of geological
disposal ofradioactive waste. While some countries went into a licensing hiatus that
seemssuretorestart,othercountriessuchasFinlandandSwedensubmittedconstruc-
tionlicensingapplicationsforregulatoryreview.InthecaseofFinland,acceptanceof
the CLA finally refutes the assertion that there are no options that have been able to
demonstratethatsuchradioactivewastewillremainsafelyisolatedfromtheenviron-
mentovertenstohundredsofthousandsofyears.Stepwiselicensingunderindepen-
dent regulatory review is intrinsic to all national waste disposal programs. Other
countries,suchasFrance,Switzerland,andtheUnitedStates,seemsuretofollowtheir
own licensing processes inthe coming decade.
As we planned this second edition volume, Joonhong and I were convinced that
clearprogresstowardsafe,permanentdisposalofradioactivewastesisbeingaccom-
plishedaroundtheworld.Thisprogressisfundamentallybasedon,andsustained,by
independentreviewbytechnicallycompetent,regulatoryauthorities.Eachprogressive
licensingreviewispredicatedonthebasisofsufficientinformationtoconfidentlysup-
porttakinganextstep.Anaturalconsequenceofregulatoryreviewisidentificationof
areas requiring further confirmation through focused engineering and scientific
studies. Some critics insist on a mantra of “full understanding.” This objection is
more rhetorical than logical, since full understanding is an unachievable standard
for any scientific or engineering endeavor. Instead, the result of stepwise licensing
xx Prefacetothesecondedition
should be an ever-improved prioritization of subsequent RD&D needs, guided by
identification of key,safety-significant factors and their uncertainties.
Followingthestructure ofthe firstedition, thissecond, revised edition consistsof
fiveparts. Thefirstpart isanintroductiontogeological disposal and explains design
strategy, relation with fuel cycle including interim storage prior to disposal, and
conceptual designs for low-level and high-level waste repositories. The second part
discusses site characterization, site surveying, and construction for various types of
host rocks, such as crystalline rock, clay, and salt. The third part deals with
engineered-barrier technologies, ranging from waste-solidification materials to
buffer/backfill materials, and modeling of their interaction to evaluate radionuclide
release rates from the barriers. The fourth part covers the performance assessment
for the geological disposal system. This is a universally adopted methodology for
evaluating the postclosure performance of repository systems, which is compared
with regulatory guidelines on long-term safety to identify “safety-significant” issues
and support regulatory decisions. The last part focuses on how the knowledge of
experts and judgment of independent regulators can be invoked in a structured,
transparent basis to help communicate with the public and take a forward licensing
step toward geological disposal ofspent nuclear fuel and high-level waste.
I wish to thank the authors for their excellent chapters, which broadly cover the
state-of-the-art in subjects pertinent to geological disposal. The reference list at the
end of each chapter will also beuseful for the reader who would like tolearn more.
In finalizing this book I have been blessed with assistance from Natasha Welford
and colleagues at Elsevier Limited, UK. Without Natasha’s patience and encourage-
ment, this bookcouldnothavebeen realized.
MichaelJ. Apted
Austin,Texas
February 2017
Preface to the first edition
Sincethemid-20thcentury,nuclearpowergeneration,radioactivematerialsutilization
inmedicineandindustry,andnuclearweaponsproductionhaveproducedsignificant
amountofradioactivewastesatvariousdifferentlevelsofradioactivityconcentrations.
Someradionuclideshavehalf-livesmuchlongerthantheuseofnuclearandradiation
technologies. Therefore, a reliable technological and societal system is necessary for
managementoftheseradioactivewastesthatassuresafety,forbothcurrentandfuture
generations.
Geological disposal has been selected, developed, and implemented over the past
half century by virtually all nuclear countries as the safest and most effective final
disposition method for radioactive materials. The goal of geological disposal is
simpledto keep hazardous radioactive wastes away from people. Thanks to sponta-
neous radioactive decay, the radiological hazard of such wastes decreases over time,
unlike other types of hazardous wastes produced by modern societies. Thus, if we
can successfully isolate the materials of concern for a “sufficiently” long time, then
wecanachievethegoaloflimitingtheamountofradiationfromradioactivematerials
to future populations.
Achievingthisseeminglystraightforwardgoal,however,requirestheconsideration
and integration of diverse technological, regulatory, and social factors. How can
important, safety-related questions be collected from concerned stakeholders and
addressed? Technologically, how can we find and characterize suitable geological
disposalsitesandthendesignrepositorysystemsthatcanlimitanyeventualradiolog-
icalreleasestoacceptablysafelowlevels?Howcanweassurethatthemultipleengi-
neered and natural barriers of such repository systems function as we expect far into
thefuture?Morefundamentally,howislong-termsafetytobeevaluatedandindepen-
dently confirmed? The concept of geological disposal started as a relatively simple
measure,butthehistoryofitsdevelopmentshowsthattheissueofgeologicaldisposal
has triggered fundamental questions regarding the principles, standards, and
approaches tosuccessful implementationof finaldisposal concepts.
Whilemanycountriesthathavegeneratednuclearwastearejustbeginningthepro-
cesstowardgeologicaldisposal,severalimportantmilestoneswereachievedinthelast
decadeofthe20thcenturyandthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury.TheWasteIsolation
Pilot Plant (WIPP) was commissioned in 1999 in Carlsbad, New Mexico, as a deep
geological repository for the disposal of US defense-generated transuranic wastes.
Other disposal systems for low-level and intermediate-level wastes have also been
implemented in the United States, Sweden, Finland, Japan, and elsewhere. License
applications for geological disposal of used nuclear fuel and reprocessed high-level
waste are at the point of regulatory review in the United States and Sweden, and
xxii Prefacetothefirstedition
completed in Finland. Significant progress toward final disposal of nuclear wastes is
also occurringinFrance,Switzerland, and Canada.
The last 50years in waste disposal programs has also seen some setbacks and
adjustments in response to scientific, regulatory, and societal concerns. The 1960s
Project Salt Vault in Lyons, Kansas in the United States was abandoned after local
public objections. Early siting attempts for low-level and intermediate-level wastes
inSwitzerlandwererejectedbypopularlocalvotes.Inthemid-1990stheinitialenvi-
ronmentalimpactstatementforadeepgeologicalrepositoryinCanadaforthedisposal
ofusedCANDUfuelwasfoundtobetechnicallysoundbutnotsociallysupported.A
public inquiry into potential disposal of intermediate-level waste in the Sellafield
areaoftheUnitedKingdomalsoledtotheconceptbeingrejected.Decisionsonprog-
ress toward nuclear waste disposal in Germany have fluctuated during decades of
socialandpoliticaldebatecenteredonnuclearpower.IntheUnitedStates,theYucca
MountainRepositoryProgramsubmittedalicenseapplicationtotheNuclearRegulatory
Commission in 2008, but at the time of writing the fate of this program remains
uncertain.
It is notable, however, that following on from these setbacks, national repository
programs have learned and applied important lessons on the types of technological,
social,andregulatoryfactorsthatrequireopenconsideration,transparentdocumenta-
tion, and close integration. Successful geological disposal program restarts are being
madeinmanycountries,inpartbecausenuclearwastesfrompowergeneration,med-
icalapplications,andindustrialusesalreadyexistandhavesofarbeenheldintempo-
rarystoragefacilities.Thereisanacknowledgedneedforthesewastestobemanaged
and disposedofsafelyto protect currentand future generations.
Astheissueoflong-termsafetyisuniversal,active,andmutuallybeneficial,inter-
national discussions and collaborations have played important roles since the 1970s
and have been particularly helpful and effective in developing national geological
disposal programs. The results of this collaboration and information sharing include
the core part of conceptual design and philosophy, regulatory frameworks, and
approaches to safety assessment by nuclear countries. Thus, it is now understood
that the geological repository is not just a large-scale civil engineering project that
constructsabunchoftunnelscontainingradioactivewastecanistersbutalsoasystem-
atic process that is supportedby a set of scientific principles, independent regulatory
reviews, and methodologies on information exchange and decision-making with the
general public tobe successful.
Basedonthisrecentprogressanddevelopment,theeditorsofthisbookthoughtthat
itwouldbetimelytocompileabookaboutgeologicaldisposalthatreviewsthestate-
of-the-artofthetechnology,regulatoryphilosophy,andsocial-interactionframework
thatarecontributingtosustainedprogresstowardassuringlong-termsafetyofgeolog-
icaldisposal.Becausegeologicaldisposalencompassesawiderangeof“-ologies,”we
asked experts from many diverse fields to contribute chapters; while standard topics
such as materials science, design, and geoscience are addressed, we purposefully
broadened our topics toinclude regulatory andsocietal areas aswell.
The book consists of five parts. The first part is an introduction to geological
disposal,andexplainsdesignstrategy,relationwithfuelcycle,andconceptualdesigns
