GEOHAB/IOCCG Harmful Algal Bloom draft report

79 Pages·2015·4.57 MB·English

IntheIOCCGReportSeries:
1. Minimum Requirements for an Operational Ocean-Colour Sensor for the Open Ocean
(1998)
2. StatusandPlansforSatelliteOcean-ColourMissions: ConsiderationsforComplementary
Missions(1999)
3. RemoteSensingofOceanColourinCoastal,andOtherOptically-Complex,Waters(2000)
4. GuidetotheCreationandUseofOcean-Colour,Level-3,BinnedDataProducts(2004)
5. RemoteSensingofInherentOpticalProperties: Fundamentals,TestsofAlgorithms,and
Applications(2006)
6. Ocean-ColourDataMerging(2007)
7. WhyOceanColour? TheSocietalBenefitsofOcean-ColourTechnology(2008)
8. RemoteSensinginFisheriesandAquaculture(2009)
9. PartitionoftheOceanintoEcologicalProvinces: RoleofOcean-ColourRadiometry(2009)
10. AtmosphericCorrectionforRemotely-SensedOcean-ColourProducts(2010)
11. Bio-OpticalSensorsonArgoFloats(2011)
12. Ocean-ColourObservationsfromaGeostationaryOrbit(2012)
13. MissionRequirementsforFutureOcean-ColourSensors(2012)
14. In-flightCalibrationofSatelliteOcean-ColourSensors(2013)
15. PhytoplanktonFunctionalTypesfromSpace(2014)
16. OceanColourRemoteSensinginPolarSeas(2015)
17. ObservationofHarmfulAlgalBloomswithOceanColourRadiometry(thisvolume)
Disclaimer: Theopinionsexpressedherearethoseoftheauthors;innowaydotheyrepresent
thepolicyofagenciesthatsupportorparticipateintheIOCCG.
Theprintingofthisreportwassponsoredandcarriedoutbyxxx,whichisgratefullyacknowl-
edged.
Reports and Monographs of the International
Ocean Colour Coordinating Group
AnAffiliatedProgramoftheScientificCommitteeonOceanicResearch(SCOR)
AnAssociatedMemberoftheCommitteeonEarthObservationSatellites(CEOS)
IOCCG Report Number 17, 2016
Observation of Harmful Algal Blooms with Ocean Colour
Radiometry
Editedby:
StewartBernard(CSIR,SouthAfrica)
ReportofanIOCCGworkinggrouponHarmfulAlgalBloomsandOceanColour,chairedby
StewartBernardandbasedoncontributionsfrom(inalphabeticalorder):
Stewart Bernard, Mariano Bresciani, Jennifer Cannizzaro, Hongtao Duan, Claudia Giardino,
PatriciaM.Glibert,ChuanminHu,TiitKutser,RonghuaMa,EricaMatta,MarkMatthews,Frank
E.Muller-Karger,StefanSimis,IniaM.Soto,JenniferWolny
SeriesEditor: VenetiaStuart
Correctcitationforthispublication:
IOCCG(2016). ObservationofHarmfulAlgalBloomswithOceanColourRadiometry. Bernard,S.
(ed.),IOCCGReportSeries,No. 17,InternationalOceanColourCoordinatingGroup,Dartmouth,
Canada.
The International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group (IOCCG) is an international group of
expertsinthefieldofsatelliteoceancolour,actingasaliaisonandcommunicationchannel
betweenusers,managersandagenciesintheoceancolourarena.
TheIOCCGissponsoredbyCentreNationald’EtudesSpatiales(CNES,France),CanadianSpace
Agency (CSA), Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO, Aus-
tralia), Department of Fisheries and Oceans (Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada),
EuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA),EuropeanOrganisationfortheExploitationofMeteorological
Satellites(EUMETSAT),NationalInstituteforSpaceResearch(INPE,Brazil),IndianSpaceRe-
searchOrganisation(ISRO),JapanAerospaceExplorationAgency(JAXA),JointResearchCentre
(JRC,EC),KoreaInstituteofOceanScienceandTechnology(KIOST),NationalAeronauticsand
SpaceAdministration(NASA,USA),NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA,
USA),ScientificCommitteeonOceanicResearch(SCOR),andSecondInstituteofOceanography
(SIO),China.
http: //www.ioccg.org
PublishedbytheInternationalOceanColourCoordinatingGroup,
P.O.Box1006,Dartmouth,NovaScotia,B2Y4A2,Canada.
ISSN:1098-6030
ISBN:978-1-896246-66-6
©IOCCG2016
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Contents
1 HarmfulAlgalBlooms,theirChangingEcosystemDynamicsandRelatedConceptual
Models 1
1.1 IntroductiontoHarmfulAlgalBloomsandtheirEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 IntroductiontotheGlobalEcologyandOceanographyofHarmfulAlgalBlooms
(GEOHAB)Programme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 HABsandGlobalChange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Relationshipswitheutrophication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Relationshipswithchangingclimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 TrophicInteractions: HABsasPreyandasPredators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Conceptualmodelsoftheinfluenceofnutrientsandthephysicalenvironmenton
speciesselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 ChangesinHABsassessedwithOceanColour: CaseStudyoftheArabianSeaand
ArabianGulf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Case Study: Blooms of the Neurotoxic Dinoflagellate Karenia brevis on the West
FloridaShelf 21
2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.1 Organismdescription,impact,anddistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.2 Ecologicalniche,nutrientandenvironmentalpreferences,andbloommech-
anism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 DataandMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 OceanColourCaseDemonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 DiscussionandSummary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 CaseStudies: RemoteSensingofCyanobacteriaBlooms 33
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.1 Terminology,taxonomy,andfunctionaldiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.2 Pigmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1.3 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Case1: BloomDistributioninLakeTrasimeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.2 Studyarea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.3 Imageprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Case2: LakeTaihu,China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
i
ii • ObservationofHarmfulAlgalBloomswithOceanColourRadiometry
3.3.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.2 Studyarea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.3 Imageprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.4 Imageanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.5 Factorsforcingblooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Case3: TrophicStatus,CyanobacteriaandSurfaceScumsinLakes. . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.2 TheMPHalgorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.3 Detectionofeukaryoteandcyanobacteriadominatedwaters . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 Case4: SummerBloomsintheBalticSea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.1 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.2 Studyarea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.3 Imageanalysis: Delineatingblooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.4 Spatialresolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.5 Timeseriesandmatchinginsituobservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
AcronymsandAbbreviations 59
Chapter 1
Harmful Algal Blooms, their Changing Ecosystem
Dynamics and Related Conceptual Models
PatriciaM.Glibert1
1.1 Introduction to Harmful Algal Blooms and their Effects
Overthepastseveraldecades,thefrequencyofoccurrence,theduration,andgeographicextent
of blooms of toxic or harmful microalgae have been increasing in many parts of the world
(e.g.,GlibertandBurkholder2006;Heisleretal.2008),ashastheappreciationoftheserious
impactsthatsucheventscanhaveonbothecosystemsandonhumanhealth(e.g.,Backerand
McGillicuddy 2006; Johnson et al. 2010. The scientific community refers to “harmful algal
blooms”(HABs)asthoseproliferationsofalgaethatcancausefishkills,contaminateseafood
with toxins, and alter ecosystems in ways that humans perceive as harmful (e.g., GEOHAB
2001). ThetermHABisusedgenerallyandnon-specifically,recognizingthatsomespeciescan
causeharmfuleffectsevenwhenatdensitiesthatarelowandnotatlevelsnormallytakentobe
a“bloom”,whileotherspeciesthathavesignificantecosystemorhealtheffectsaretechnically
not“algae”. SomeHABsaresmallprotiststhatobtaintheirnutritionbygrazingonothersmall
algaeorbacteria;eithertheydonotphotosynthesizeatall,oronlydosoinconjunctionwith
grazing(Glibertetal.2005;Jeongetal.2005;Burkholderetal.2008;Jeongetal.2010;Flynn
etal.2013). OtherHABsarecyanobacteria(CyanoHABs),someofwhichhavetheabilityto“fix”
nitrogenfromtheatmosphereastheirnitrogensource. Thus,theterm“HAB”isanoperational
term,notatechnicalone. SomeHABsareplanktonic,whileothersliveinornearthesediment,
orattachedtosurfacesforsomeoralloftheirlifecycle. Amongthosethatareplanktonic,
someformvisiblesurfaceaccumulations,whileotherremainwelldistributedthroughoutthe
watercolumn. Relatingthediversityofthesecharacteristicstotheirobservationusingremote
sensingofoceancolourisatallchallenge—butatleastformanytypesofHABsthescaleof
expansionofHABshasbeenwellestablishedusingoceancolourradiometryinconjunction
withotherapproaches.
Bydefinition,allHABscauseharm—eitherecological,economic,orhumanhealth. Not
all HABs make toxins; some are harmful in other ways. In a broad sense, there are two
generaltypesofHABs: thosewhichcancontaminateseafoodorwildlifelargelythroughtheir
toxinproduction,andthosethatcauseecologicalharm,largelythroughtheirsheerbiomass
1UniversityofMaryland,CenterforEnvironmentalScience,HornPointLab,Cambridge,MD21613,USA
1
2 • ObservationofHarmfulAlgalBloomswithOceanColourRadiometry
production,whichinturncancauseanoxiaorindiscriminatemortalitiesofmarinelife(Figure
1.1). Thelatteroccursafterthesecellseitherreachdenseaccumulationsorwhenthesedense
accumulationsbegintodieandoxygenisconsumedthroughtheirdecomposition. SomeHABs
have characteristics of both: they may be both toxic and may accumulate in high biomass
blooms. Amongthosethataretoxic, therearemanytypesoftoxinswithnewtoxinsbeing
discoveredfrequently(e.g.,Landsberg2002;BackerandMcGillicuddy2006). Somealgaltoxins
killfishdirectly. Othersdonothavedirecteffectsontheorganismsthatfeedonthem,such
asfishorfilter-feedingshellfish,butthetoxincanaccumulateintheshellfishandthencause
harmtothehumanswhoconsumethem. Inothercases,thetoxinsarereleasedintothewater
columnwheretheycangetintothewatersupplyandaffecthumanconsumersthroughtheir
drinking water. Some toxins may also be aerosolized, as is the case with Karenia brevis in
Florida,andrespiratorydistresscanresultforthoseincontactwiththeseair-bornetoxins.
Makingthetaskofunderstandingthesephenomenaallthemorecomplex,notallspeciesare
toxicunderallconditions,anditisnotcompletelyunderstoodwhenandwhydifferentspecies
maybecometoxic.
Figure1.1 VariousimagesofHABsandtheireffect,includinga“redtide”inEastChina
Sea(upperleft;photobyJ.Li),afreshwater“greentide”(upperright;photobyT.Archer),
afishkillfromtoxicalgae(lowerleft;photobyP.Glibert),andmicroscopicviewsofa
commontoxicredtidemicroorganism(lowerright;photosbyY.Fukuyo).
IntermsofalgalclassesthatcanbeconsideredHABs,therearemany,includingdinoflagel-
lates,diatoms,raphidophytes,prymnesiophytes,andcyanobacteriaamongothers. Themost
Fig. 1
HarmfulAlgalBlooms,theirChangingEcosystemDynamicsandRelatedConceptualModels • 3
commontoxicmarineHABsarethedinoflagellates,andthemostcommontoxicfreshwater
HABs are cyanobacteria, but increasingly toxic diatoms are also of concern, particularly in
coastalwaters.
1.2 Introduction to the Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harm-
ful Algal Blooms (GEOHAB) Programme
AcknowledgingthattheHABproblemisglobal,butrecognizingthatthereisstillmuchtobe
understoodwithregardtothebiological,chemical,andphysicalfactorsthatregulateHABdy-
namicsandimpacts,theSCOR/IOCGlobalEcologyandOceanographyofHarmfulAlgalBlooms
(GEOHAB)programme(c.f.,GEOHAB2001)wasformedwithamissionto: Fosterinternational
co-operativeresearchonHABsinecosystemtypessharingcommonfeatures, comparingthe
keyspeciesinvolvedandtheoceanographicprocessesthatinfluencetheirpopulationdynamics.
UltimatelythegoalofGEOHABwasto: ImprovepredictionofHABsbydeterminingtheecological
andoceanographicmechanismsunderlyingtheirpopulationdynamics,integratingbiological,
chemicalandphysicalstudiessupportedbyenhancedobservationandmodelingsystems.
TheworkoftheGEOHABProgramwasmultifaceted,fromadvancingunderstandingofthe
adaptivestrategiesofHABs,toimprovedlinkagesbetweentheexpansionofHABsandother
globalchangessuchaseutrophicationandclimatechange,andtoimprovedcharacterization
ofHABsinregions,especiallyAsia,whereHABsandtheireffectsareparticularlypervasive
(GEOHAB2010). GEOHABwasnotintendedasaresearchprogrammeperse,butratherasan
internationalforumtoadvancetheunderstandingoftheecologyandoceanographyofHABs,
andtoimprovethepredictionofHABsthroughadvancedapproaches. GEOHABiscurrently
undergoingatransitiontoanewmission,inclusiveofissuesrelatedtobothfreshwaterandto
toxineffects,andsoGEOHABistransitioningtoitsnewidentity,GlobalHAB.Inthedecade
since the launch of GEOHAB, the dynamics of a changing world have become increasingly
apparent. Fromclimatetooceanacidificationtochanginganthropogenicnutrientloadsand
speciestransportaroundtheworld,thepotentialtrajectoryofchangeforHABsisevermore
importanttounderstand.
ThroughtheworksupportedbyGEOHABaswellasotherstudies,wehavegainedabetter
understanding of the relationships between many HAB species, particularly dinoflagellate
HABs,andtheirenvironment. ThebiogeographicalrangesofHABorganismsandhowthey
havechangedovertimeisoffundamentalimportanceinresolvinghowspeciesmayhavebeen
introducedtonewareas,andwhatareasmaybesusceptibletonewintroductionsinthefuture.
Certainspecieshavearathercircumscribeddistributionwithinfairlynarrowenvironmental
constraints. Forexample,speciessuchasPyrodiniumbahamensearegenerallyrestrictedto
tropicalandsubtropicalregionsinthePacificOceanandtheCaribbeanSea(e.g.,Hallegraeff
and Maclean 1989), while other species, such as Alexandrium catenella, are only found in
temperatewatersatmid-tohighlatitudes. Otherspecies, suchasProrocentrumminimum
haveamorecosmopolitandistribution,fromtemperatetotropicalwaters(Glibertetal.2008,
2012). An understanding of the environmental constraints on species distribution aids in
4 • ObservationofHarmfulAlgalBloomswithOceanColourRadiometry
understandinghowspeciesbiogeographymaychangeonbothshortandlong-termscalesas
(OK??) climate and other environmental conditions may change. Ocean colour approaches
havehelpedadvanceourunderstandingofexpandingspeciesranges.
TheGEOHABProgrammehasbeeninstrumentalinraisingtheglobalawarenessofhow
manynewareas,notpreviouslyimpactedbyHABs,arenowexperiencingHABsoneitheran
event-scalebasisoronalongertermscale,reflectiveofenvironmentallychangedconditions.
Severalexampleshighlighttheoccurrenceofneworincreasingeventsandtheirimpactsin
China,aregionwheretheexpansionofHABsisreadilyapparent. ThenumberofHABshas
increasedinallwatersofChinainthepastthreedecadesandmostinlandandcoastalwaters
areratedinthemoderatelytoseverelypollutedrange(Wangetal.2011;Ti2013).
Figure1.2 TherecentincreaseinHABeventsoffthecoastofChinaisrelatedtothe
increaseinnitrogen-basedfertilizeruseoverthepasttwodecades. Reproducedfrom
Heisler et al. (2008) with permission of Harmful Algae (Elsevier). Does IOCCG have
permissiontoreproducedthisfigureaswell??
OccurrencesofHABsintheEastChinaSeawererareinthe1970s,increasedtoafewdozen
duringthe1980s,andincreasedto>130inthe5yearsfrom1992to1997(ShenandLiu2009)
butthescaleofthebloomshassoaredintheyearssince(Figure1.2);thespatialscaleofthe
annualbloomsincreasedfromthousandsofkm2 in2000to>15,000km2 by2005,withmany
millionsofdollarslostinhighvalueaquacultureproductsduetoassociatedfishkills(Lietal.
2009). ThedinoflagellatesProrocentrumdonghaienseandKareniamikimotoi areamongthe
commonHABsnowreportedinEastChinaSea(e.g.,Zhouetal.2008;Lietal.2009). Inthe
HuanghaiSearegiontherehasalsobeennearlyasix-foldincreaseinHABoccurrencesanda
shifttoproporFtiiogn. a2t elymoredinoflagellatescomparedtodiatoms(Fuetal.2012),whilein
theSouthChinaSearegion,therehasbeenbothanincreaseinnumberofHABsaswellasa
changeinspeciescomposition,withanincreasingdominanceofspeciessuchasChattonella,
Gymnodiniumbreve,andDinophysis(Wangetal.2008;Glibertetal.2014b)–isthisthecorrect
ref??. AparticularlylargeandunusualbloominChinareceivedinternationalcoveragein2008
(Figure1.3). ThiswasabloomofthemacroalgalspeciesEnteromorphaproliferathatoccurred
at the venue of the Olympic Games sailing competition, almost blanketing the water with
filamentousscum(Huetal.2010). Bloomsofthismagnitudeinthisregionhadnotpreviously
been observed. One of the features of this species and its blooms is that it tends to float,