Geodiversity: Valuing and Conserving Abiotic Nature

450 Pages·2003·14.88 MB·English

by  Murray Gray

Geodiversity
valuing and conserving abiotic nature
Murray Gray
Department of Geography,
Queen Mary, University of London

Geodiversity

Geodiversity
valuing and conserving abiotic nature
Murray Gray
Department of Geography,
Queen Mary, University of London
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Contents
Preface xi
Chapter 1 Defining Geodiversity 1
1.1 A Diverse World 1
1.2 Biodiversity 2
1.3 Geodiversity 4
1.4 Geodiversity as a Resource 8
1.5 Aims and Structure of the Book 9
Chapter 2 Describing Geodiversity 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Origin of the Earth 13
2.3 Early History of the Earth 14
2.4 Plate Tectonics 18
2.5 Landscapes of Plate Interiors 22
2.6 Earth Materials 23
2.6.1 Minerals 23
2.6.2 Rocks and sediments 27
2.6.3 Fossils 35
2.7 Processes and Landforms 38
2.7.1 Igneous processes and forms 38
2.7.2 Slope processes and forms 40
2.7.3 River environments 45
2.7.4 Coastal environments 48
2.7.5 Glacial environments 51
2.7.6 Periglacial environments 54
2.7.7 Arid environments 57
2.7.8 Weathering environments 57
2.7.9 Soils 59
2.8 Conclusions 63
Chapter 3 Valuing Geodiversity 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Intrinsic or Existence Value 65
3.3 Cultural Value 70
3.3.1 Folklore (geomythology) 70
3.3.2 Archaeological and historical value 72
vi Contents
3.3.3 Spiritual value 77
3.3.4 Sense of place 79
3.4 Aesthetic Value 81
3.4.1 Local landscapes 82
3.4.2 Geotourism and leisure activities 83
3.4.3 Artistic inspiration 84
3.5 Economic Value 85
3.5.1 Mineral fuels 86
3.5.2 Industrial, metallic and precious minerals 90
3.5.3 Construction minerals 97
3.5.4 Fossils 112
3.6 Functional Value 114
3.6.1 Utilitarian functions 114
3.6.2 Geosystem functions 121
3.6.3 Ecosystem functions 121
3.7 Research and Educational Value 126
3.7.1 Processes and scientific discovery 127
3.7.2 Earth history 127
3.7.3 History of research 128
3.7.4 Environmental monitoring 129
3.7.5 Education and training 131
3.8 Conclusions 131
Chapter 4 Threats to Geodiversity 133
4.1 Introduction 133
4.2 Mineral Extraction 135
4.3 Landfill and Quarry Restoration 143
4.4 Land Development and Urban Expansion 145
4.5 Coastal Erosion and Protection 146
4.6 River Management, Hydrology and Engineering 148
4.7 Forestry, Vegetation Growth and Removal 151
4.7.1 Afforestation 151
4.7.2 Deforestation 153
4.8 Agriculture 153
4.9 Other Land Management Changes (e.g. Cutting, Filling, Dumping,
Spreading or Discharging Materials) 157
4.10 Recreation/Tourism Pressures 159
4.11 Removal of Geological Specimens 163
4.12 Climate and Sea-level Change 165
4.13 Fire 167
4.14 Military Activity 167
4.15 Lack of Information/Education 168
4.16 Cumulative Impacts and Sensitivity to Change 169
4.17 Conclusions 172
Contents vii
Chapter 5 Conserving Geodiversity: The Protected Area and Legislative
Approaches 175
5.1 Introduction 175
5.2 Beginnings of the Conservation Movement in North America 175
5.3 Early British Experience 180
5.4 The Protected Area and Legislative Approaches 182
5.5 International Conservation 182
5.5.1 The IUCN 182
5.5.2 The United Nations 183
5.5.3 Other international agreements 196
5.6 The European Dimension 197
5.7 National Conservation Systems 197
5.8 United States of America 198
5.8.1 The National Park System 199
5.8.2 National Natural Landmarks (NNLs) 206
5.8.3 National Wild and Scenic Rivers 208
5.8.4 State Parks 208
5.8.5 State Scientific and Natural Areas 209
5.8.6 Other legislation and protected areas 210
5.9 Canada 211
5.9.1 National Parks 211
5.9.2 Heritage Rivers 214
5.9.3 Provincial designations 214
5.9.4 Other legislations 221
5.10 United Kingdom 221
5.10.1 National Parks 222
5.10.2 Nature Reserves 223
5.10.3 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) 225
5.10.4 Regionally Important Geological Sites (RIGS) 233
5.10.5 Limestone Pavement Orders 236
5.10.6 Other legislations and protected areas 237
5.11 Ireland 238
5.12 Northern Europe 240
5.13 Eastern Europe 242
5.14 West Central Europe 242
5.15 Southern Europe 243
5.16 Australia 249
5.16.1 National Parks 249
5.16.2 Conservation reserves and sites 249
5.16.3 State activity 251
5.16.4 Other legislation and protected areas 254
5.17 New Zealand 254
5.18 The Rest of the World 255
5.19 International Geoconservation Revisited 257
5.20 Conclusions 262
viii Contents
Chapter 6 Managing Geodiversity: New Approaches for the Wider
Landscape 263
6.1 Sustainable Management of the Georesource 263
6.2 Assessing the Wider Geodiversity Resource 264
6.2.1 Introduction 264
6.2.2 European initiatives 265
6.2.3 Natural Areas and Landscape Character Assessment in the
United Kingdom 266
6.2.4 Mapping and inventory approaches in Australia 278
6.2.5 Natural Regions and Sub-regions in Canada 283
6.2.6 Landscape physiographic units map of Italy 286
6.3 Georestoration 286
6.3.1 Quarry and pit restoration 288
6.3.2 River restoration 291
6.3.3 Coastal restoration and managed realignment 295
6.3.4 Contaminated land rehabilitation 299
6.3.5 Other land restoration projects 299
6.4 Landform Design 301
6.4.1 Golf courses 302
6.4.2 Landraising 304
6.4.3 Bunding 304
6.4.4 Pond and reservoir formation 305
6.4.5 Urban landform 306
6.4.6 Conclusions 307
6.5 Geomaterials 307
6.5.1 Sustainable mining 308
6.5.2 Overexploitation of minerals 309
6.5.3 Sustainable use of geomaterials 312
6.5.4 Natural and indigenous geomaterials and methods 316
6.6 Land-use Planning Systems 317
6.7 Environmental Impact Assessment 322
6.8 Policies, Strategies, Audits and Charters 329
6.8.1 Agricultural policy 329
6.8.2 Soil conservation 330
6.8.3 Geology audits and Geodiversity Action Plans 333
6.8.4 Geoconservation strategies 336
6.8.5 Natural heritage charters 337
6.9 Communication, Interpretation and Education 339
6.10 Conclusions 345
Chapter 7 Comparing and Integrating Geodiversity and Biodiversity 347
7.1 Introduction 347
7.2 Criticisms of “Geodiversity” 347
7.3 Measuring Geodiversity 349
7.3.1 Spatial diversity 349
7.3.2 Geoindicators 350