General Aviation Aircraft Design: Applied Methods and Procedures

1216 Pages·2013·12.09 MB·English

by  Snorri Gudmundsson

Dedication
I dedicatethis bookto my Father andMother,to whom Iam forever
indebted, andmy wonderful wife Lindaforherunconditional
supportand patience.
GENERAL AVIATION
AIRCRAFT DESIGN:
APPLIED METHODS
AND PROCEDURES
S G
NORRI UDMUNDSSON BScAE,MScAE,FAADER(ret.)
AssistantProfessorofAerospaceEngineering,
Embry-RiddleAeronauticalUniversity
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON
NEWYORK(cid:129)OXFORD(cid:129)PARIS(cid:129)SANDIEGO
SANFRANCISO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO
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Preface
Thepurposeofthisbookistogather,inasingleplace, the manager of the design team; they should always
a diverse set of information and procedures that are know whatstepsfollow thecurrentoneandwhattools
particularly helpful to the designer of General Aviation and resources arerequired.
aircraft. Additionally, it provides step-by-step deriva- This book is intended to provide the experienced, as
tions of many mathematical methods, as well as easy- well as the aspiring, designer with clear and effective
to-followexamplesthathelpillustratetheirapplication. analysis procedures. There is already a good collection
The procedures range from useful project management of well written college textbooks available on aerody-
tools to practical geometric layout methods, as well as namics,structures, flight dynamics, and airplane design
sophisticated aerodynamics, performance, and stability available for the engineering student. Many are written
andcontrol analysis methods. solely with the student of aerospace engineering in
The design of an airplane generally begins with the mind and, consequently, often present simple problems
introduction of specific requirements: how fast, how inspired more by mathematical convenience than prac-
far, how many, what amenities, what mission? Once tical situations. Such conveniences are usually absent in
introducedtosuchrequirements,theentryleveldesigner the industrial environment, where problems involve
often asks: “What’s next? Where do I even begin?” natural processes that do not always accommodate
This book provides step-by-step procedures that lead “equationfriendly”shortcuts.Thisbookalsooffersalarge
the reader through the entire process; from a clean- chapter on propellers, a topic many textbooks, sadly,
sheet-of-paper to the proof-of-concept aircraft. They ignore. The propeller is here to stay for the foreseeable
wereselectedanddevelopedbytheauthor’smanyyears futureandthiswarrantsthelargespacededicatedtoit.
ofexperienceintheaircraftindustry;initiallyasaflight- This book differs from such textbooks as it is solely
test engineer, then structural engineer, aerodynamicist, writtenwiththeanalysisofrealairplanesinmind.Most
and eventually an aircraft designer. Subsequent years of the examples presented involve actual production
ofexperienceinacademiahaveallowedthepresentation aircraft,allowingresultstobedirectlycomparedtopub-
methods to be polished, based on student feedback. In lished data. This gives the reader a great sense for the
the author’s own design experience, a book such as accuracyofthevariousanalysismethods.Italsoprovides
thiswouldhavebeenextremelyhelpfulintheformpre- a number of numerical methodologies that take advan-
sented here, both as a resource and guide. This book is tage of the power of the modern desktop or laptop
writtenwiththatinmind. computer. This comes in the form of powerful program
Aneffectivedesignprocessnotonlyanswerswhether snippets and spreadsheet setups intended for analysis
theproposeddesignwillmeetthedesiredrequirements, work with Microsoft Excel. This book offers the student
but also what remedies are viable in case it does not. athoroughintroductiontopracticalandindustryproven
Duringthisphase,thespeedofanalysisisalmostalways methods, and the practicing engineer with a great go-to
of the utmost importance, and the competent designer text. I am certain you will find it a very helpful book
shouldbeabletopredictdifferencesbetweenvariations andthatitwillincreaseyourproductivity.
of the desired vehicle. However, the design process is
multifaceted e it is more than just solving equations e Snorri Gudmundsson
managing the process is also imperative. It is not only Assistant Professor of Aerospace Engineering
necessary to wield the proper tools, but also to know Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
when to apply them. This is particularly important for Daytona Beach, Florida.
For supporting materialspleasevisit:
http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780123973085
xiii
Acknowledgments
A large book like this is a substantial undertaking. It Turnquist provided selected pictures as well and also
can only become a reality with contributions from deservesthanks.IalsowanttothankNirmitPrabahkar,
many individuals and companies who, in one way or Manthan Joshi, Thomas Ford, Brian Smith, Teddy Li,
another, participated in its making. I want to use this Matthew Clark, and Fabio An for data collection. I also
opportunityandthanktheseindividualsandcompanies wanttothankDr.LakshNaraynaswamiforproofreading
for their help in providing various information and Section 7, The Selection of the Powerplant, and providing
supportsothatIwouldbeabletoprovideyou,thereader, priceless guidance regarding turbo-machinery and inlet
withmaterialofgreaterdepththanotherwisepossible. design.IalsowanttothankMr.BrianMeyerofHartzell
I want to begin by thanking my editor: Mr. Joe Propellers Inc. for his contribution to the book.
Hayton, and Project Managers Ms. Chelsea Johnston Mr. Meyer provided priceless guidance and help in
and Ms. Pauline Wilkinson of Elsevier Publishing, for proofreading Section 14, The Anatomy of the Propeller,
invaluable guidance during the development and suppliedmaterialandsuggestionsthatmadethesection
production of the book. I’d also like to thank much better. Iwanttofurtherextendthanksto Hartzell
Dr. Howard Curtis, my fellow Professor of Aerospace Propellers for their permission to use selected material
Engineering at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, on propellers. I want to thank Mr. Dale Klapmeier of
who believed strongly enough in the project to suggest CirrusAircraftforpermittingdetailedinformationabout
it to Joe. the SR20 and SR22 aircraft to be presented in the book.
Thefollowingindividualsandcompaniesdeservean IalsowanttothankMr.PaulJohnston,Cirrus’chiefengi-
expression of my gratitude. I want to thank Mr. Don neer for initial proofreading and helpful suggestions.
Pointer of the Dassault Falcon Jet Corporation for I want to thank Mr. Bruce Barrett for several anecdotal
providing information about Dassault business jets. I nuggets from his colorful career as a flight-test pilot.
also want to extend my thanks to Flightglobal.com, Finally,IwanttoexpressmygratitudetoProfessorEmer-
Williams International, Price Induction, Hirth Engines, itusCharlesEastlakewhoprovidedmostofthematerial
and Electraflyer for material provided by them. I want on the development cost analysis of Section 2 in this
to thank Mr. Raymond Ore for providing cutaways of book,inadditionforhisproofreadingeffortandinsight-
the Spitfire and Mosquito aircraft and the Ed Coates fulcomments.
collection. I am indebted to my former student,
Mr. Phil Rademacher, for the large number of photo- Snorri Gudmundsson
graphs he supplied for the project. Mr. Rademacher is
DISCLAIMER
an expert in aircraft recognition and, as such, has won
a number of intercollegiate competitions. Phil provided
me with an enormous pool of aircraft photos, of which Everyefforthasbeenmadetotraceandacknowledge
many can be found throughout this book. Another copyright. The author would welcome any information
student of mine, Mr. Nick Candrella, also provided from people who believe their photos have been used
selected pictures. A former colleague of mine, Mr. Jake without due credit.
xv
Helpful Notes
HELPFUL WEBSITES FOR THE LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND
AIRCRAFT DESIGNER COMMON TERMS
FAA regulations: http://www.faa.gov/ Units
Abbreviation Description (UKandSI)
NACA/NASA http://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp
Report Server
AC StandardAirworthiness
Aircraftthree- http://richard.ferriere.free.fr/
Certificate (context
view drawing 3vues/3vues.html
dependent)
database:
AC AdvisoryCircular
Aircraftpicture http://www.airliners.net/search/
(context dependent)
database: index.main
AD Airworthiness
Airfoil databases: http://www.worldofkrauss.com/
Directives
http://www.ae.illinois.edu/
AF Activity Factor
m-selig/ads/coord_database.html
AIAA American Institute of
Aeronautics and
Astronautics
AISI AmericanIronandSteel
Institute
ALF ArtificialLaminar Flow
AMM AircraftMaintenance
Manual
THE GREEK ALPHABET AOA Angle of Attack Degreesor
radians
AOD Angle of Descent Degreesor
radians
Aa Alpha Nn Nu AOG Angle of Glide Degreesor
radians
Bb Beta Xx Xi
AOI Angle of Incidence Degreesor
Gg Gamma Oo Omicron
radians
Dd Delta Pp Pi
AOL AircraftOperating
E3 Epsilon Pr Rho Limitations
Zz Zeta Ss2 Sigma AOY Angle of Yaw Degreesor
Hh Eta Ts Tau radians
Qq Theta Yy Upsilon AR Aspect Ratio
Ii Iota Ff Phi AR Horizontal TailAspect
HT
Kk Kappa Xc Chi Ratio
Ll Lambda Jj Psi ARVT Vertical TailAspect
Mm Mu Uu Omega Ratio
AR Wing Aspect Ratio
W
xvi
xvii
HELPFULNOTES
Units Units
Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) Abbreviation Description (UKandSI)
ASTM American Societyfor FAA Federal Aviation
Testing andMaterials Administration
BET Blade ElementTheory FAR Federal Aviation
BFL Balanced Field Length ftor m Regulations
BHP Brake Horse Power HP FF Form Factor
BL BoundaryLayer FOD ForeignObject Damage
CAA CivilAviationAuthority FRP Fiberglass Reinforced
Plastics
CAD ComputerAided
Design GA GeneralAviation
CAR Civil Aviation GAMA GeneralAviation
Regulation Manufacturers
Association
CAT Clear Air Turbulence
GDT Geometric
C SFCofapistonenginein
bhp
Dimensioning and
terms of BHP
Tolerancing
CDBM Component Drag
GRP Graphite Reinforced
Build-up Method
Plastic
CER Cost Estimating
HLFC Hybrid Laminar Flow
Relationship
Control
CFD Computational Fluid
HT Horizontal Tail
Dynamics
IF Interference Factor
CFR Code of Federal
Regulations IFR Instrument Flight Rules
CG Centerof Gravity IGE In GroundEffects
C SFC of a turbojet, IPT Integrated Product
jet
turbofan,or a pulsejet Teams
engine ISA International Standard
CPI Consumer Price Index Atmosphere
C Wing root chord JAA Joint Aviation
r
Authorities
CRP Carbon Reinforced
Plastics JAR Joint Aviation
Regulations
CRUD Cumulative Result of
UndesirableDrag KCAS Knots, Calibrated Knots
Airspeed
CS Certification
Specification KEAS Equivalent airspeed Knots
C Wing tip chord KGS Groundspeed Knots
t
C SFCofapistonenginein KIAS Knots indicated Knots
ws
terms of WattSeconds airspeed
DAPCA Development and KTAS Knots, True Airspeed Knots
ProcurementCostof LCO Life Cycle Oscillations
Aircraft LE Leading Edge
EASA EuropeanAviation LFC Laminar Flow Control
Safety Agency
LIFTOFF The event when an
ELOS Equivalent Level of airplane’s landinggear
Safety isno longerin contact
ESDU Engineering Sciences with the ground
Data Unit (formerly)
(Continued)
(Continued)
xviii
HELPFULNOTES
Units Units
Abbreviation Description (UKandSI) Abbreviation Description (UKandSI)
LSA Light sportaircraft RTM Resin TransferMolding
MAC Mean Aerodynamic S-AC Special Airworthiness
Chord Certificate
MAP Manifold Pressure SAE Society ofAutomotive
MAV MicroAir Vehicle Engineers
MCP Maximum Continuous SAS Stability Augmentation
Power System
MFTS Master Flight Test SB Service Bulletin
Schedule SCS Stability Coordinate
MGC Mean Geometric Chord ftor m System
MLG Main Landing Gear SFC Specific Fuel
Consumption
MMPDS MetallicMaterials
PropertiesDevelopment SHP ShaftHorse Power HP
and Standardization S-L Sea Level
NACA NationalAdvisory Stall The minimumairspeed
Committee for atwhichanairplanecan
Aeronautics flylevel
NASA NationalAeronautics STC Supplemental Type
and Space Certificate
Administration TC TypeCertificate
NBAA NationalBusiness TCDS TypeCertificate Data
AviationAssociation Sheet
NLF Natural Laminar Flow TE Trailing Edge
NLG Nose Landing Gear TED Trailing Edge Down
NSCFD Navier-Stokes TEL Trailing Edge Left
Computation Fluid
TER Trailing Edge Right
Dynamics
TEU Trailing Edge Up
OAT OutsideAir
T-O Take-off
Temperature
TR Taper Ratio
OEI One Engine Inoperative
TRA Tireand Rim
OGE Out of GroundEffects
Association
OML OutsideMold Line
TSFC Thrust specific fuel
PFM Pilots Flight Manual
consumption
PFT Potential Flow Theory
TSO Technical Standard
PIO Pilot Induced Order
Oscillation
TSOA Technical Standard
PMA Parts Manufacturer OrderAuthorization
Approval
UAV Unmanned Aerial
POC Proof-of-Concept Vehicle
POH Pilot’s Operating USAF United States Air Force
Handbook
VBA Visual Basic for
QFD QualityFunction Applications
Deployment
VG VortexGenerator
RFP Requestfor Proposal
VLM Vortexlattice method
ROC Rate of Climb
VT Vertical Tail
ROD Rate of Descent
RPM Revolutions per Minute
xix
HELPFULNOTES
HANDY CONVERSION FACTORS A NOTE ABOUT MASS AND FORCE
Oftenseveralformsofunitsofforcearepresentedin
1 ft ¼ 0.3048 m the UK-system. Examples include lbs, lb, lb (engine
f st
1 m ¼ 3.28084 ft thrust), lbt (engine thrust), and so on. Usually this is
1 mi (statute mile) ¼ 5280 ft donetodistinguishbetweenmechanicalandotherkinds
1 nm (nautical mile) ¼ 6076 ft of forces. In this book, though, the intention is to keep
everything simple and straight-forward and for that
1 BHP ¼ 0.746 kW
reason,the same unit will beused atall times:
1 BHP ¼ 746 W
1 BHP ¼ 33000 ftlbf/min Ifwearetalkingaboutapoundmasswewilluse:lbm
1 BHP ¼ 550 ftlb/sec Ifwearetalkingaboutapoundforcewewilluse:lbf
f
1kW ¼ 1.340483 BHP This will be done regardless of the source of the
1W ¼ 0.001340483 BHP force.
1ft/s ¼ 0.59242 knots
1ft/s ¼ 0.3048 m/s
1 mph ¼ 1.467 ft/s
1knot ¼ 1.688 ft/s
1 US gallon of Avgas ¼ 6.0 lb (2.718 kg)
f
1 US gallon ofJet A ¼ 6.7 lb (3.035 kg)
f
1 US gallon ¼ 3.785412 liters
Fuel tank volume: 1 in3 ¼ 0.004328704USgal
Fueltankvolume:1USGal ¼ 231.02 in3
1 GPa (giga-pascal) ¼ 145037.73773 psi
1 MPa (mega-pascal) ¼ 145.03773773 psi
xx
HELPFULNOTES
A NOTE ABOUT FORMAT
Thisbookhasbeendesignedinafashionintendedto
be particularly useful to the reader (Note that QED is
Latin for Quod Erat Demonstrandum means “Now it has
been demonstrated”):
Article’s title bar
ANALYSIS7:AIRSPEEDFOR MAXIMUML/DRATIO
KnowingtheairspeedatwhichthemaximumL/D Section17).ItisalsoknownastheAirspeedforMinimum
ratioisachievedisimperative,notonlyfromastand- ThrustRequired. Main article (white background)
point of safety but also as the airspeed of minimum
thrust required (also see Equation (15-21). Pilots of
singleaircraftaretrainedtoestablishthisairspeedas (15-24)
soonaspossibleincaseofenginefailureasitwillresult
in a maximum glide distance (see ANALYSIS 8 in
Derivation (gray background)
We showed that CL for LDmax was given by:
InsertthisintotheliftequationandsolveforV: QED
Example (boxed text)
EXAMPLE 15-5
Determinetheairspeedthepilotshouldmaintainin Determinetheairspeedat30000ftand15000lb:
ordertoachievemaximumlift-to-dragratioforthesample
aircraftat30000ftand20000lb: