Table Of ContentGender and Politics
Series editors: Johanna Kantola, Senior Lecturer in Gender Studies, University
of Helsinki, Finland, and Sarah Childs, Professor of Politics and Gender,
University of Bristol, UK
This timely new series publishes leading monographs and edited collections
from scholars working in the disciplinary areas of politics, international
relations and public policy with specific reference to questions of gender. The
series showcases cutting-edge research in Gender and Politics, publishing topical
and innovative approaches to gender politics. It will include exciting work
from new authors and well-known academics and will also publish high-impact
writings by practitioners working in issues relating to gender and politics.
The series covers politics, international relations and public policy, including
gendered engagement with mainstream political science issues, such as political
systems and policymaking, representation and participation, citizenship and
identity, equality, and women’s movements; gender and international relations,
including feminist approaches to international institutions, political economy
and global politics; and interdisciplinary and emergent areas of study, such as
masculinities studies, gender and multiculturalism, and intersectionality.
Series Advisory Board:
Louise Chappell, University of New South Wales, Australia
Joni Lovenduksi, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
Amy Mazur, Washington State University, USA
Judith Squires, University of Bristol, UK
Jacqui True, Monash University, Australia
Mieke Verloo, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands
Laurel Weldon, Purdue University, USA
Titles include:
Gabriele Abels and Joyce Marie Mushaben (editors)
GENDERING THE EUROPEAN UNION
New Approaches to Old Democratic Deficits
Phillip Ayoub and David Paternotte
LGBT ACTIVISM AND THE MAKING OF EUROPE
A Rainbow Europe?
Elin Bjarnegård
GENDER, INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS AND POLITICAL RECRUITMENT
Explaining Male Dominance in Parliamentary Representation
Elgin Brunner
FOREIGN SECURITY POLICY, GENDER, AND US MILITARY IDENTITY
Andrea Chandler
DEMOCRACY, GENDER, AND SOCIAL POLICY IN RUSSIA
A Wayward Society
Sarah Childs and Paul Webb
SEX, GENDER AND THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY
From Iron Lady to Kitten Heels
Jonathan Dean
RETHINKING CONTEMPORARY FEMINIST POLITICS
Meryl Kenny
GENDER AND POLITICAL RECRUITMENT
Theorising Institutional Change
Andrea Krizsan, Hege Skjeie and Judith Squires (editors)
INSTITUTIONALIZING INTERSECTIONALITY
The Changing Nature of European Equality Regimes
Mona Lena Krook and Fiona Mackay (editors)
GENDER, POLITICS AND INSTITUTIONS
Towards a Feminist Institutionalism
Emanuela Lombardo and Maxime Forest (editors)
THE EUROPEANIZATION OF GENDER EQUALITY POLICIES
A Discursive-Sociological Approach
Birte Siim and Monika Mokre (editors)
NEGOTIATING GENDER AND DIVERSITY IN AN EMERGENT EUROPEAN
PUBLIC SPHERE
Anna van der Vleuten, Anouka van Eerdewijk and Conny Roggeband (editors)
GENDER EQUALITY NORMS IN REGIONAL GOVERNANCE
Transnational Dynamics in Europe, South America and Southern Africa
Polly Wilding
NEGOTIATING BOUNDARIES
Gender, Violence and Transformation in Brazil
Gender and Politics Series
Series Standing Order ISBNs 978–0–230–23917–3 (hardback)
and 978–0–230–23918–0 (paperback)
You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a
standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us
at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the
ISBN quoted above.
Gender Equality Policy in
the European Union
A Fast Track to Parity for the
New Member States
Ingrid Bego
Assistant Professor of Political Science, Political Science Department,
Hastings College, USA
Palgrave
macmillan
© Ingrid Bego 2015
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2015 978-1-137-43716-7
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author(s) has/have asserted his/her/their right(s) to be identified as the
author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.
First published 2015 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Palgrave is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has com-
panies and representatives throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN 978-1-349-56160-5 ISBN 978-1-137-43717-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9781137437174
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
To
Elira, Boid,
Adelina and Ria
Contents
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Acknowledgements ix
List of Abbreviations xi
1 Introduction: Gender Equality Policy in the European Union 1
2 Adoption and Implementation of Equal Employment
Policies in Four Countries 19
3 Beyond Employment: Addressing the Private and
Public Divide through Reconciliation Policies 44
4 The Role of Formal and Informal Institutions in the
Policy Process 65
5 Modernization and Cultural Explanations with a Strong
Dose of Communist Legacy 86
6 Actors, Norms and Institutions: The Necessary Ingredients
for a Successful Policy Model 114
7 Conclusion 134
Appendix: Summary and Text of EU Gender Equality
Directives Analysed 143
Notes 173
Bibliography 177
Index 195
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Equal Pay and Equal Treatment – laws adopted
(1998–2010) 28
Table 2.2 The outcomes on the adoption and implementation
of Equal Pay and Equal Treatment Directives
(1998–2010) 42
Table 3.1 Domestic laws adopted on Pregnant Workers
and Parental Leave Directives (1998–2010) 45
Table 3.2 Leave provisions in new Central and Eastern
European member states (1998–2010) 52
Table 3.3 The outcomes on the adoption and implementation
of Pregnant Workers Directive 62
Table 3.4 The outcomes on the adoption and implementation
of Parental Leave Directive 62
Table 4.1 Types of governmental coalitions constructed in
post-communist Europe (1995–2005) 69
Table 4.2 Presence of women’s policy agencies in Central
and Eastern Europe 70
Table 4.3 Contemporary political parties with soft
euroscepticism in the candidate countries of
Central and Eastern Europe 81
Table 4.4 Domestic factors affecting adoption and
implementation of gender equality policy 84
Table 5.1 Indicate how important is religion in your life,
percentage stating ‘very important’ 108
Table 5.2 Percentages of individuals who placed religion as
one of the three top individual values 108
Table 5.3 Men make better leaders than women,
percentage agreeing 109
Table 5.4 Women do not always have the necessary
qualities and skills to fill positions of responsibility,
percentage agreeing 109
Table 5.5 Women are less interested than men in positions
of responsibility, percentage agreeing 110
Table 5.6 Are you in favour of or opposed to men mainly
looking after the children and the home?,
percentage in favour 111
vii
List of Figures
Figure 5.1 Gross domestic product (1998–2010) 99
Figure 5.2 Gross domestic product per capita (1998–2010) 100
Figure 5.3 Total unemployment rate (1998–2010) 100
Figure 5.4 Percentages of women’s representation in
parliament during and after communism 102
Figure 5.5 Percentage of women in parliament in the
three elections from 1998–2010 104
Figure 6.1 Gender pay gap in 2010 120
Figure 6.2 Policy adoption and implementation model
for EU-driven policy 128
viii
Acknowledgements
I owe a great deal of gratitude to many people who helped and sus-
tained me through the writing of this book. Before I could even envi-
sion myself as an author, Amy Mazur and Joe Jupille encouraged me
to become a better writer and take my work and research to the next
level. Their support, encouragement and inspiration along the way have
been invaluable. This book would have not become a reality without
the interest and trust that the editors of the Gender and Politics series
at Palgrave Macmillan, Johanna Kantola and Judith Squires, showed on
this project. Their valuable and constructive feedback on improving this
project made all the difference in the world. I am very grateful to the
whole Palgrave Macmillan team, particularly to Amber Stone-Galilee,
Sara Crowley-Vigneau and Jemima Warren. When things got tough for
me along the way, they were always supportive and understanding. I
will be forever grateful to them for their help through the process.
Writing this book with a very busy schedule was made possible by
patient, supportive and amazing friends and colleagues like Laura
S. Logan and Jean Heriot. They must have gotten tired of me talking
about the book and the writing process, but they were always cheery
and happy to hear me talk some more. When things got tough and
difficult, my strength came from what I consider my rock, my Catalyst
Group of inspiring Nebraska women who have made me not just a bet-
ter writer but a better person this last year. Lisa Smith, particularly, has
inspired me to persevere and has believed in me from the moment we
met. Elizabeth Stehling, through her amazing artwork and friendship,
has supported me in more ways than I can express. I hope to one day
provide the same level of support and direction that Kathryn Milun pro-
vided for me as I was writing this book. Her advice and wisdom guided
me through the process of writing and beyond.
My family and friends scattered around the world have heard me
working on this book for a long time and have continued to be there for
me even when I had to take long breaks to focus on writing. Particularly,
my friends Gina Murray and Beatriz Mariño Jachim have been a con-
stant reminder of the unconditional friendships I have and how much
they mean to me. Mentors like John Perlich, Jessica Henry, Denny Storer
and Liz Frombgen at Hastings College have always been ready to help
and were valuable every step of the way.
ix
