Gender-Division and Political Allegory in the Last Romances of William Morris

12 Pages·2009·1.59 MB·English

12 JOURNALOFPRE-RAPHAELITESTUDIES
FLORENCEBOOS
Gender-Division and Political Allegory
in the Last Romances of William Morris
Froma feministpointofview,WilliamMoms'slast for Morris's development in the last romances of a
three prose romances suggest several vexing ques "separatefemale questpattern,"inwhichwomenare
tions.1 Dotheselastromancesshowcontinuedaware permitted to carry some of the dominant virtues of
nessofissues whichwereraisedbysocialist-feminists nature, butonlyinpeaceful,non-combative settings.
in the late 18808 in socialistworks written between Finally,IwillaskwhyMorris'sdeepestmetaphorsfor
1885 and 1890, including "The Pilgrims of Hope," humanalienationinthelastromancesinvolvedgender
Newsfrom Nowhere, RootsoftheMountains,andThe divisionandwar,andsuggestthattheseseemedtohim
House ofthe Wolfings? And ifso. why is Morris's reciprocallylinkedinrathercomplex ways.
finest myth of a female journey, The Water ofthe Inaperiodwhichoftenformulatedsocialidealsin
Wondrous Isles, followed by twomoreconventional termsofpre-historicalandhistorical"origins,"specu
patriarchal narratives, The Well atthe World's End, lativereconstructionsofclassicalandEuropeantribal
andTheSunderingFlood,inwhichtheexperiencesof organizationandreligiousmyths becamethesubjects
womenareancillary tomalejourneys towardfulfill.. ofever-moreelaboratecontroversyandintetpretation.
ment? Itisfirstofall worthnoticinginthis contextthatthe
Moregenerally, do thesefantasy-romances ofthe ethosandmyth-worldofMorris'sromancesbearscant
90sstillconsistentlyexpressMoms'ssearchfor"me resemblance to thosefound in the more well-known
dieval" prototypes ofa temporallyindefinitefuture? Victorianmythopoeticwriters-RuskinandPater,for
Dotheysharea commonsensibilitywithotherpoliti example,orMullerandFrazer.
callymotivatedreconstructions of"primitive,""bar John Ruskin's descriptions ofclassical landscape
barian," and medieval family life by Morris himself havesomeofthepervasivebrightnessofTheWaterof
and by his reformist and socialist contemporaries? the Wondrous Isles, buthis conceptions ofclassical
Andifso, what explains his apparentdiminutionof myth,developedinvolumefive ofModern Painters,
imaginative interest in some of the more genuinely The Cestus ofAglaia, The Ethics ofthe Dust, The
creative,evenrevolutionaryimplicationsofhis work? Crown ofWild Olive,and The Queen ofthe Air, are
Inanefforttoaddress thesequestions,Iwillconsider radically un-Morrisian in their appeal to modes of
first some Victorianpatriarchal andreformistmyths allegoryfoundedonabstractmoraldogma. Ruskin's
whichformed aloosesocialmatrixfor Morris's cre favoritedeityisthefather-bornruler-goddess,Athena.
ationoftheplots andprominentfemale characters of an allegedly androgynous giver of "perfect knowl
thelastromances: wood-spirits,magicians,andoth edge"aswellas"strengthandpeace,insignofwhich
ers-the Witch, Habundia, Birdalone, the Lady of she is crowned with the olive spray, and bears the
Abundance, Ursula, and Elfbild. I will suggest that resistless spear" (xviii, 445-6). Insistently, Ruskin
despitegenuineawarenessoftheinjusticeofcolouial asserts the non-material and nonerotic nature ofhis
wars,contemporaryreformistandsocialistreconstnlc transmogrifiedpuritan ethic:
tions of the past gave relatively little attention to
pacifistoranti-militiaconcerns,andfailedtoconfront It is an error to suppose that the Greek worship, or
the implications of pervasive violence for various seeking, was chiefly ofBeauty. It was essentially of
kindsoflegal,sexual,andeconomicoppression. Iwill rightness and strength. founded on Forethought. ..the
also commenton someimplications ofthis ideology
THELASTROMANCES OFWILLlAMMORRIS 13
Dorian Apollo-worship and Athenian Virgin-worship anthropological arguments which were powerful as
are both expressions of divine wisdom and purity.. wellasmyopic. Severalsocialist~feministcriticshave
.There is no Venus-worship among the Greeks in the already noted the merits and limitations ofEngels's
great times: and the Muses are essentially teachers of argument as a male-feminist polemic (See Footnote
Truth,andofits harmonies. (xviii.446) andWorksCitedBoos,3-34,andVogel,Partll). Inthe
context of this paper, I wish to contrast Engels's
Somuchforphysicalloveandfertility rites. reconstructions with those ofhis more romantically
OnemightexpectmoreofthelatterinJamesFrazer's inclinedforebear, Johann Bachofen, as well as with
TheGoldenBough: A StudyinComparativeReligion, Morris'sparalleladmirationforthesocialpracticesof
publishedin 1890,theyearofthefirstofMorris'slast medieval Icelanders and early medieval Germanic
six proseromances. Frazer's concernwiththesocial tribes. Engels's exposition, in particular, omitted
meaning andartifacts associatedwithearlyreligions several major elements of Bachofen's speculations
did reflect some of the same respect for enduring aboutwomen's earlyauthorityandeconomicpower.
popular traditions Morris expressedin his essays on Bachofen's 1861 Mother Right: An Investigation
the'"lesser arts," and reconstructions ofdaily life in ofthe Religious andJuridical CharacterofMatriar~
"Germanic"romances, TheHouseoftheWolfingsand chyintheAncientWorld mayhaveprovidedthefirst
TheRootsoftheMountains. ThelegendFrazerfound scholarlyinterpretationofancienthistoryasaseriesof
centraltoall"Aryan"cultures,however-immolation clashes between male and female rule. Bachofen
ofacorn-god,celebratedbyasacrificialmeal-wasas believed that human religion and society developed
foreign to Morris's imagination as it was central to through"tellurian"and"lunar"toapredictablypatri~
orthodoxChristianity. Fewofhislovingdescriptions archal "solar" stage, but expressed impassioned re
ofthedetails ofharvestrituals suggestanymotifs of spectfor women's essentialcontributions (as he saw
Morrisian plots. Morris's landscapes,moreover,are them) to the earliest periods of human history of
<lOderately well-populated with women and female religionandculture:
divinities,butthegodsofFrazer'sritesarealmostall
male. Thesoleexceptionsappearinhisaccountofthe Atthelowest,darkeststagesofhumanexistencethelove
mythof"DemeterandProserpine"asMaidenandOld betweenthemotherandheroffspringisthebrightspot
Woman/CornMother. inlife. theonlylightinthemoraldarkness. theonlyjoy
Morris's respectfor Ruskin was largely based on amidprofound misery.... Patemalloveappears later.
the latter's social ideas, sohe might well have paid Therelationshipwhichstandsattheoriginofallculture.
littleheedtohis(relativelylate)disquisitionsonmyth. ofeveryvirtue. ofevery nobleraspectofexistence, is
HepresumablybrowsedthroughFrazer'scompilation thatbetweenmotherandchild;itoperatesinaworldof
atsomepoint,butonlyasoneamongmanycollections violence as the divine principle of love, of union. of
ofmythsandfolktaleshereadasamatterofcourse. Of peace. Raisingheryoung, theWOmanlearnsearlierthan
more likely importance to Morris would have been themantoextendherlovingcarebeyondthelimitsofthe
FriedrichEngels'sTheOriginoftheFamily. Private ego to anothercreature, and to directwhatevergiftof
Property, andthe State, the mostprominentMarxist inventionshepossessestothepreservationandimprove
interpretation of pre-modern history, which was re~ mentofthisother'sexistence. Womanatthisstageisthe
viewedinCommonweal the yearofits first German repositoryofallculture,ofallbenevolence.ofalldevo
publication (1884). Several of Engels's ideas may tion. ofallconcem'forthelivingandgriefforthedead.
evenhavepromptedspecificpassagesin"TheRoots (79)
ofSocialism,"theseriesofarticlesMorrisco-autbored
withErnestBelfortBaxwhichappearedconcurrently Engels described Bachofen in the Origin as a
withADreamofJohnBall inCommonweal in1886.2 "mysticgenius" andsummarizedhis arguments with
Engels sharedMorris's tendency tofind anticipa~ respect, but Bachofen's obvious idealism and reli...
tionsofradical~emocraticandproto~mmunistegali gious interpretations ofculture were clearly alien to
tarianideals in "primitive" tribal societies. Engels's Engels'smuchmoreliteralandschematicreconstruc
Origin wasoneofhis bestindependentworks,botha tions ofmaterial relations. Bachofen's lyrical prose
marxist-feministtreatiseandaboldpopularizationof (unlike Morris's) focused primarily on woman-as...
14 JOURNALOFPRE-RAPHAELITESTUDIES
mother, but he also suggested several insights and Inanycase, unlike Bachofen, Engels largelyig
linesofthoughtwhichareabsentfrom Engels'slater nored the emotional and psychological aspects of
accountofthesocial systemhecalled"matriarchy." socialorganization,andhisaccountoftenseemsmore
Bachofen suggested, for example, that different ingenious thanpersuasive. Againstthebackgroundof
relationships between children and parents might Bachofen, moreover, Engels's "matriarchy" can be
emergeinfamilies organizedbymothers ratherthan seenforwhatitis: notamatriarchyatall,butrathera
legallydominantfathers. Healsoargued thatmater~ matrilinear patriarchal agricultural society, whose
nally organized communal societies might foster a vaguely adumbrated ethos included few norms for
differentandmoreinclusiveethic: organization ordecision-making beyondgeneral ap~
peals to"community."
whereas the paternal principleis inherentlyrestrictive, Engels does deserve credit, however, for his un~
thematernalprincipleisuniversal;thepaternalprinciple compromising visionofwomenas thesocial victims
implies limitation to definite groups, butthe maternal ofmen, whichheexpressedinsomewhatapocalyptic
principle,likethelifeofnature, knowsnobarriers. The Hegelianlanguagein his assertation that"The over~
ideaofmotherhoodproducesasenseofuniversal.frater~ throw ofmother right [note Bachofen's phrase) was
mtyamongallmen, whichdieswiththedevelopmentof the worldhistoricaldefeat ofthefemale sex" (120).
paternity. (SO)(italicsmine) More characteristically, he later adds that"monoga
mous marriage,"inhis view a sourceofmany evils,
Bachofen suggested relationships totally alien to "comesonthesceneasthesubjugationoftheonesex
Engels'sconceptionofmatrilinearsociety(andhereto bytheother;itannouncesastrogglebetweenthesexes.
Morris'sworkaswell)inhisrecognitionoftheimpor~ ..Thefirstclassoppressioncoincideswiththatofthe
tancewithinmatriarchiesoftheroleofsisters1x>thto femalesexbythemale"(128-29). WhatEngelslacked
theirbrothersandtotheirsisters. was aconcomitantsense that womenmightorganize
Bachofen'slyricalaccounts werediffuselyroman amongthemselves, to try tomakeamodemfeminist,
tic and described only some ofwomen's actual and as wellassocialist,revolution.
potentialroles, but they holdinterestfor theirstrong Essentiallycooltosisterhood,as wellas tomother
associationofwomen withtheoriginsofhumancul~ hood,EngelspresentedintheOrigin animpassioned
ture, theirrecognitionthatalternatefamily structures defenseofsexual freedomforbothsexes. Whatthis
may foster less competitivemodes of behavior, and meant to him is not always clear, and he reveals a
their obvious avowal of a need, expressed in the marked pSychological unrealism about the conse
passage just quoted, to achieve (or recover) what quencesandpreconditionsqfthis "freedom,"forex
Morris, Bax, and other socialists latercalleda "reli" ample,inhisviewof"group~age:'as"theformof
gionofhumanity." family in which whole groups of men and whole
Nineteenth~turysocialist-feministsmightinprin" groups ofwomenmutually possess oneanother, and
ciplehavecontinued suchexplorations intofeminist whichleaveslittleroomforjealousy" (31). Ameasure
historiographyandassertionsofwomen'sbenignand ofsincereegalitarianismdidappearinEngels'simpas~
unacknowledgedcontributionstothepast,butfewdid. sioned defense of erotic love outside the bonds of
BeanorMarx's The Woman Question(1887)madeno 1x>urgeoismarriage:
attempt at historical retrospective, and the period's
most extended reformist feminist survey of family Butwhatwilltherebenew? Thatwillbeansweredwhen
history, Mona Caird's The Morality ofMarriage (a anewgenerationhasgrownup: agenerationofmenwho
collectionofearlieressays, publishedin 1897)found never in their lives have known what it is to buy a
almost nothing worth admiration of preservation in woman's surrender with money or any other social
women'scollectivepast. JaneEllenHarrison,anearly instrumentofpower; a generationofwomen who have
twentieth-century classicist, finally extended neverknownwhatitistogivethemselvestoamanfrom
Bachofen'sinsightsinherProlegomenatotheStudyof any otherconsiderations than real loveor to refuseto
GreekReligion (1903)and Themis (1912),in which givethemselvestotheirloverfromfearoftheeconomic
shecarefullyassembledevidenceforwidespreadearly consequences. (145)
Greek worshipofanearth goddess,Themis.
THELASTROMANCES OFWILLIAMMORRIS 15
Advocacyofsexual"freedom"forwomenwasalsoan few nineteenth-century theorists of family origins,
essential part of Morris's own version of socialist~ whatever theirostensibleideologies,hadany serious
feminism, and his acceptance ofhis wife's rejection interest in women's historical roles, or reservations
witnessed thathe practicedwhathepreached. aboutrigidgender-divisions,andevenfewerdiscerned
Apparentlyabsorbedbytheintellectualintricacies anyconnectionbetweensuchdivisions andrecurrent
ofLewis Morgan's descriptionoftribal kinship sys forms ofindividual and communal violence. Joint
tems,Engelsneverthelessseldomseemstohavepaused condemnations ofsexism and militarism formed the
toaskwhatlifeinsucha "matrilinear"societymight smallestofclouds onthe horizonofnineteenth-cen..
really havebeenlike,forwomenandformen. There turyimperial England.
is no mentionofwomen's conductoftribal govern.. I have arguedelsewhere (Boos, Victorian Sages,
ment,forexample;orcontributions toreligionorart; ed.Morgan, 187-206,296-301)thatsocialist-feminist
orsharedresponsibilityforwar;orrelations withtheir debatesofthemid-andlate1880'sandthepresenceof
partnersor-ofmanifestimportancewithinamatriar womenactivistsinthesocialistmovementinfluenced
chy, after all-with their children and each other. Morris's poeticconscience andimagination,andthat
Since Engels, like Marx, Bebel, E1eanor Marx, and onecanalreadytracethisinfluenceintheplotsof'The
mostothernineteenth-centurysocialists,professedto Pilgrims of Hope," News From Nowhere, and toa
find all forms of homosexuality utterly abhorrent, lesser degree, The House ofthe Wolfings and The
lesbiantiesinthenew/oldorderareofcoursenonex~ Roots ofthe Mountains. Morris's narratives with
istent. More revealingly, perhaps, motherhood and womenas protagonists orcentral figures (e.g., "The
child-rearing are scarcely mentioned, apartfrom is.. Defence ofGuenevere," "Cupid and Psyche," "The
suesofsexuality. Engelsalsofailed toconsiderhow Lovers of Gudrun," and News from Nowhere) are
a society which really regarded women and men amonghis bestworks. Againstthisbackground,and
equallywouldadjudicateresponsibilitiesofchildcare that of the sources sketched in the foregoing para~
andchildren'seducationandwaslargelytmconcerned graphs,Iwishto(re)considerthepuzzlingtrajectory
with issuesofsexual orotherforms ofpersonal and ofMorris'slast threeproseromances andattemptto
social violence. He never seemed to consider the answersomeofthequestionsposedatthebeginningof
possibility that women might somedayhave to take thisessay.
separateorganizedactionoftheirowntoaddresssuch All threeofMorris'slasttales,ofcourse,aresetin
issues. Inthe gripofhis beliefthatkinshiprelation an unspecific quasi-medieval past, but the genuine
shipsmustinevitablydeterminerespectivedegreesof historical references do grow in numberfrom tale to
power, Engels neglected to examine other forms of tale. Each,moreover,isarguably a shademore"so..
genderinequality,oraskhowhis tribal"communist" cialist" than its predecessor. The Sundering Flood,
societywoulddifferfrom a matrilinearpatriarchy. Morris'sfinal workandhismosthistoricallyspecific
The bestaspectsofEngels's treatisedid however tale since theGerman romances, continues this pro
provideapowerfuldefenseoftheneedtoseparatesex gression. Earlier,Morrisembodiedhismostoptimis-'
andlovefrom economicbarter. Thework's specula.. ticviewsofsocialprocessesinNewsfrom Nowhere,a
tive reconstructions ofagrarian egalitarianism were taleofanimaginedfuture. Inthesefinalromances,by
less successful, as were its conspicuous failures to contrast, he fused chronology and geography into a
considerthesocialandpoliticalimplicationsofphrases strangelygentleother-whenandother-whereofmythic
about female equality, or extend them beyond struggleandfulfIllment.
tmdifferentiatedtalkof"sexualfreedom"andanendto Morris' medieval socialistromancesofthe80's......
"oppression." This is not to depreciate one of the JohnBall,Wolfings,Roots-werealsotalesofheroic
century'smore original andhumanitarianliteraryef conflictbetween"thepeople"andtheiroppressors,of
forts atmalefeminism,butonlytosuggestthatEngels, course, andJohn Balland Wolfings bothendedwith
likeMorris,acceptednominallyfeministideals which redemptivedeathsoftheirmaleprotagonists. Nearthe
broughtwiththemlittleconceptionofspecificchanges endofhislife Morris seems to have returned to this
these might require in daily human and economic preoccupationwithheroiceffortstoredeemnaturefor
relations-orfor thatmatter,thepracticeandfocusof itsoriginalintents. Womenwereessentialasmotiva~
the"lesserarts"Morrissoloved. ExceptforBachofen, tors andobservers ofthis struggle,buttheir separate
16 JOURNALOFPRE-RAPHAELITESTUDIES
journeysborewithgreaterindirectionontheircourses also represents an imagined desiring self within all
andoutcomes. persons, and the maturation-myth ofherjourney in
The recurrentforce of this personal dialecticina The Water ofthe Wondrous Isles isalsoa sustained
thoroughlypacifistmanalsosuggeststhatthesharply harmoniousprojectionofitsauthor'sown"feminine"
polarizedgenderdivisionsinMorris'squasi-chivalric loveofnature,expressedmostpoignantlybyElenat
quest-literature reflected deep unexamined assump~ theendofNewsfrom Nowhere. Seeninthese terms,
tionsofVictoriancultureaboutwomenandalsoabout then,Birdalonecanberegardedas thenewanarchist
thenatureofviolenceandtheneedforpersonalloyal~ socialistheroineliberatedto wanderina worldafter
tiesandfamily structureswhichenforceandcontainit. the Change, suffering only the conflicts needed to
Morris seems to haveconsideredthe implications of achieve psychological maturation, and mercifully
suchgender-divisionabitternecessityinthestruggle unshackled by the complicated physical challenges
toward socialism, andits partial suspensiontobean and political obstacles Morris felt compelled to im~
inherentbenefitofitssuccessfulattainment. Thisiron poseonhismaleheroes. ThelastofMorris'sseparate
law of gender-division is wrong, I believe, but its female-searchplots,Birdalone'sstoryisalsohisbest.
identification of "feminine" ideals with the goal to~ The secondofthese final tales is The Well at the
wards which socialism moves stands at least with World's End, in which Ralph rescues Ursula from
Bachofen,andagainstFreud'sperceptionofwomenas captivityandregainshisparents' threatenedkingdom.
civilization'senemies(exceptthatforMorris,ofcourse, Thetale's stylizedscenesof"combat,"however,are
"civilization"perse was anenemy).3 lessattractive than a sharedpilgrimageby Ralphand
In effect, then, I wish to propose two hypotheses Ursulatoseekthe wisdomoftheWell,during which
aboutMorris'ssocialistidealsandtheviewsofgender Ursula and an elderly Sage give appropriate advice
identityheexpressedinhisliterature. ThefIrstis that aboutthejourney. Atonepoint,for example, Ralph
there was something profoundly "feminine" about recoils with fear and disgust before the corpses of
socialismattained,asheenvisionedit,butsomething otherswhohavediedinsearchoftheWell,andUrsula
tediouslybutdutifullyagonisticand"masculine"about remindshimofthe"realistic"settingandrationalefor
thestrugglefor thatattainment. Thesecondis thata theirsearch:
"dialectic"canbetracedinthesuccessionofhisworks
whichmoves restlessly betweenthese twopoles: of Ralph: "Yea.butevenif'Wedienotinthewaste,yetthis
apparentlyunceasing,perhapsevenunavailingstruggle, is piteous; somanylivespassedaway, somany hopes
followed, at length (he devoutly hoped), by "rest": slain."
Ellen'sandUrsula'sembraceofthe"earthandevery~ "Yea." shesaid;"butdonotfolkdietherein theworld
thing in it." If these hypotheses are at all right, it behind us? 1have seen sights far worser than this at
becomesdoublyrelevanttointerpretthesexualpolari~ Utterbol,littlewhileasIwasthere. Moreover1cannote
tiesandpoliticalalienationofMorris'sfmal romances thatthisarmyofdeadmenhasnotcomeallinonedayor
against the backgroundofthe Victorianspeculations oneyear,butina long,longwhile,byoneandtwoand
abouttheoriginsoffamilylife,aswellasthesocialist~ three; for hast thou not noted that their raiment and
feminine projections of a proto-communist "medi~ wargearboth,isofmanyfashions,andsomemuchmore
eval"life Morrisintendedhis tales torepresent. perishedthanother,longasthingslastinthisDryWaste?
1saythatmendieasintheworldbeyond,butherewesee
themas theyliedead, andhavelainfor solong."
Thefirstofthefinal romancesis The Water ofthe Hesaid: "IfearneithertheWastenorthedeadmen, if
Wondrous Isles, Morris's finest account of female thou fcarest not, beloved: but1lament for these pool'
maturation, and one ofhis bestandmostempathetic souls."
celebrationsofwomen'sautonomyandsexualityseen "And1also."saidshe."thereforeletuson,thatwemay
from thevantagepointofmoderatesocialist-feminism cometo those whosegriefwemay heal." (71)
and the temperedoptimism oflatemiddleage. The
naturalimageryandpleasantunexpectednessofmany LikeNewsfrom Nowhere, TheWellattheWorld's End
ofBirdalone'sexperiencesgiveherthecharacterofa alsoemploysasinterpreterandprophetofthecouple's
forceoflife. Sheisnotonlyanindividualwoman,but experienceanoldman(noticeagain,notanoldwoman
THELASTROMANCES OFWILLIAMMORRIS 17
oranoldcouple). Ursula'spersonalstoryandintelli ftnish theworkbeforehisillnessovercamehim. The
gentpresencesarenonethelessessential tothetale. tale's central metaphor is a powerful river which
UrsulaalsoaffIrmsonceagainMorris'sunashamed courses through a deep stone gorge, and its hero
senseofphysicalunionwithallformsofsentientlife. OsberneWolfgrimssonis a young Icelandic/Scandi
Before theyreach the Well,Ralphworries that when navian scaldwhose dimeter rhyming staves suggest
he and Ursula are old, they will feel alienated or the poetry ofthe Eddas orAnglo-Saxon verse. The
dissociatedfrom thosearoundthem: "fTJhedaymay romance's interspersed poems and loving, melodic
comewhen...thefolkroundaboutusshallbetousas rural descriptions create a countervailing effect of
muchandnomorethanthesetreesandthewildthings fluidharmonyamidrecurrentpoliticalconflict.
that dwell amongst them" (67). In a remarkable SeveralofTheSunderingFlood's featuresandplot
passagethatrecallstheembraceoftheearthattheend motifs alsoreflectcharacteristicfeatures ofMorris's
ofNews, Ursulafmdsinthiscomparisondeepgrounds earliernarratives. Thetaleisintroduced,forexample,
forhope: by its "gatherer," a medieval English monk in the
HouseoftheBlackCanonsatAbingdon, whobegins
"ButIsaythatwell willitbeinthosedaysifIlovethe withdirectsecond-personaddress("Foryemustknow.
folkthenaswellasnowIlovethesetreesandthewild ..Butwhenyehavejourneyed...,"2,3),thenshiftsto
thingswhosehousetheyare." Andsheroseuptherewith a more generic, third-person narrative voice. This
and threw her arms about the oak-bole and kissed its invokerof"St.William,andSt.Richard,andtheHoly
ruggedness... (67). Austinourcandleinthedark!" (2)isclearlymedieval,
English,andmale,buttheframe'sotherallusionsand
BeforeRalphmakeshispublicdeclarationofmar associations evoke a world ofachronal myth. The
riage with Ursula-witnessed only by local essentiallyIcelandiclandscapeoftheFlood,however,
tribespeople,andunmarred,ofcourse,bycivilrites containsgrazingland,deer,scatteredcottages,many
hehad cohabitedfor a time witha beautiful Lady of narrowrock-boundwaterfalls,thedeep-chasmedriver
Abundance, a kind of unreal and amiably amoral ofthetitle,andaterrainsodevoidoftreesthat,asinthe
Birdalone-figure. Ursula, bycontrast,isaBirdalone Iceland Morris had visited in 1871 and 1873, the
tempered for permanent companionship in the real inhabitants must buy timber. like northern Britons
world. Fairbutnotthe"fairestofall women,"sheis andScandinavians,itsdenizensalsocelebratea Mid
self-possessedandquietlylovingofalllivingthings, summer Night's festival. Further south along the
as theoak-boleincidentmakes clear,butloyal tothe "Flood"(/loo inIcelandicmeans''flood,''andfljot a
goals and common destiny they share. The couple large river) lies the communally owned "Wood
makespousalvowswhoseasymmetryisbothpointed Masterless." FurtherdownriverstillistheCityofthe
andcomplex. Hersis"Tothylife,beloved!" Hisis SunderingFlood,alowlandport,whosedescriptions
"To the Earth, and the World of Manfolk!" (83), a recall Copenhagen,Oslo, Stockholm, andGoteborg,
pledgewhich(presumably)includes the woman who butalsoperhapsmedieval London.
standsbeforehim. Shedrinksftrst,thenhandshimthe Asustainedpolitical-historical allegory organizes
cup. Thewoman'sjourneyofWatero/theWondrous theplot. OSbeme comes ofa self-governingpeople,
Isles is thussubordinatedinThe Wellatthe World's liketheIcelanderswithoutkingorobviousrnlingclass
End to that of her partner, but it retains its own ("neither King nor Earl nor Alderman," 4), and his
complementaryintegrity,andUrsula'sparalleldevel songscelebratetheircustomsandactions. Heleaves
opmentensures that the tale's mostpervasivemeta home only to defend his relatives and neighbors,
phorsforlifeandfortherenewalofMorris's"Change" againstmarauding warriors·ofthesouthernkingwho
areofpilgrimageandreturn, notbattleorritual con also roles the denizens of the port city against their
flict. will. He laterreturns to a life ofpeace when their
Morris completedhis ftnal political/historical ro independenceseemssecured. Inthis questtodefend
mance,TheSunderingFlood,inJune, 1896,onlyfour political freedom, Osberne attaches himself to the
months beforehisdeath. Itis somewhatshorterthan resistanceleader,SirGodrick(Goo-ruker,"good-pow
the two romances which precededit, and its brevity erful"), who gathers his bowmen in the Wood
andabruptendingmayhavereflectedMorris'sneedto Masterless andattempts tojoinforces withgroupsof
18 JOURNALOFPRE-RAPHAELITESTUDIES
workers from the town: the husbandmen, mariners, the oppressive State, and such an alliance will most
, and guildspeople"ofthe LesserCrafts"(artisans). likely emerge from the work of autonomous craft
Osberne clearly seeks a "just war" and no other. unions, small local organiring committees, and an
Before he offers his services to Godrick he obtains independentLabourParliament. Andsoitoccurshere.
fromthelatteraratherdetailedaccountofthelatter'S TheKingfmallyattemptstoallywithaforeigninvader
politicalallegiancesandprinciplesandreceivesassur~ againsthispeople,butisforcedtoflee,andthepeople's
anceofGodrick'sprobityinwar: humanetreatmentof Motefinally abolishes the monarcyinabsentia. Ina
non-combatants, punishment of crimes against the sequence reminiscentofMorris's socialist comedy,
populace, and support of the workers' revolution. Nupkins Awakened, the narrator remarks with wry
WbenOsbemeasks,for example,"[I]fthosegildsof delight that
craftaforesaidshouldriseupagainsttheirKingandthe
tyrants of the Porte, and they sent to thee for help, [fhe departed king's] back being turned upon his
wouldst thou give them so much help as not to be oncesubjects,manymenbegantothinkthatbelikethey
against them...Or how much more wouldst thou mightdowithouthimonceandforall,whentheycastup
give?"(139), Godrickreplies withduerevolutionary the use he had been to them in times past And this
allegiance: "[IlhenwillIgotothemwithallmineand imaginationgrew, untilatlasta greatMotewascalled,
leavehouseandlandsbehind,thatwemaybattleitout and there itwas put forward, thatsincethe Cityhad a
sidebysidetoliveordietogether." Evenintheworst PorteandaGreatCouncil,andaBurgreveunderthese,
casehewillprovisionthem,to"harrytheKingandhis the officeofKing was little needed there...and next,
dastards till weprevailatlast." withlittle gainsaying, they didawaywith theofficeof
ThenextchaptersresembleNewsfrom Nowhere's King altogether,and mostmen felt the lighter-hearted
accountof"How theChangeCame." AsinNews,the therefor. (173)
people'sarmy(a"revolutionaryvanguard")engagein
widely dispersed, small-scale conflicts indefense of Notswprisingly,"theCitythroveaswellaseveritbad
the populace, and more and more people over the done."
courseofseveralyearsgraduallydefecttotheircause. Anotherimportantifunrealisticaspectofthetale's
Osbeme's own revolutionary aims are also rather cheerfulpoliticalallegoryisitshero'sswiftretirement
clearly"inscribed"inhisnewname,"TheRedLad"(a fromwarandpositionsofpower,oncethecountryside
wry self-reference, perhaps, to the once-red-haired isfree. Osbernerefusesarewardofknighthoodforhis
"Topsy"). He leads a final battle in the city square militaryservices,for"hiskindredarenotandwerenot
whichMorrisclearlyintendedasareversalofthe 1886 oftheknighthood,albeitmenofhonour"(141). Mtet
massacreinTrafalgarSquare. Themovement'srather five years ofconflict,healsohopes wistfully tofind
quaintbattleslogan ("The Red Lad, the Red Ladfor Elfhild, his adolescent love and return with her to
Longshaw and the Crafts,"67), obviously expresses Wethennel, theirmutual home. LaterOsbeme duti
Morris'sardentloveofthecountrysideandthepracti fullyvollUlreersatonepanttohelphisnow-beleagured
calarts. fonner ally the Knight ofLongshaw, but his friend
Unlike mostinsurrectionistarmies, SirGodrick's firmlyrefuses hisaid,for"now Icandowithoutthee
strikinglyrenounces all spoilsinfavor ofdemocratic well"(238),andOsbemesettlesdownwithhiswifeto
reforms,andthenarratorenumerates theseinconsid happinessandpoliticalobscurity. Asheremarkedto
erabledetail. Somewhatliketheearlymunicipalityof the neighbors who witnessed the couple's informal
LondonunderitsCityCouncilandMayor,theCityof marriageceremony,"Whattaleshalltherebeexceptof
the Sundering Flood will now be an independent peace and quiet in these far-away upland vales?"
commune~itsBurgrevewillbeelectedbydelegatesof (233). Theendofrevolutionis peaceful serviceand
the LesserCrafts,and the guildsofthelatterpropor thequietlifeofcouplesgrownold:
tionatelyrepresentedonthecity'sGreatCouncil(171).
According to contemporary anarchist theory, and Butsurelyaboutbothofthemtherewasthenandalways
Morris'sownaccolUltoftheuprisinginNews,onlythe a sweetwisdom thatneverwentbeyondwhatwasdue
(largely)non-violentandeffectivecommoneffortsof and meetfor the land they lived inorthe people with
adeterminedandinfonnedpopulationwilllUldermine whomtheydwelt Sothatall roundthemthefolkgrew
THELASTROMANCES OFWILUAMMORRIS 19
betterandnottheworser. (233) These male-helper figures, by contrast, develop
variousaspectsofOsbeme'spersonality. TheDwarf,
Priortothisidyllicconclusion,however, the We's a "little, little old man, white-haired and wrinkle
politicalallegoryhasbeencloselyintertwinedwiththe faced, but without a beard [whose] hair shone like
story ofThe Red Lad's gradual maturation and his glass"(9),isalocalspiritofWethermel,aknoll which
romance with a sensitive and earnest local maiden, "hadbeenofoldtimeadwellingoftheDwarfsorthe
Elfhild,whosenameinoldNorsemeans"elf-battle," Land-wights, [whom many thought] grudgedit that
which acquires a certain resonance as the romance thechildrenofAdamhad supplanted them [therein],
plot develops. Osbeme Wolfgrimsson is an orphan and that corngrew on the very roofoftheirancient
remarkableforhisphysicalcourage,insightintooth house" (6). The Dwarf's gift of a tool ofskill, the
ers'motives,andpoeticgifts. Raisedinarnralcottage knife, and his promise ofhis ancient Dwarf-crafted
atWethermel,eastoftheSunderingFlood,byacow weaponsymbolicallyprovideOsbemewiththemeans
ardlyandmean-spiritedgrandfather,affectionatebut toprovisionanddefendthehomelandtowhichOsberne
timid grandmother, and the latter's elderly friend remains quietlyloyal, as wehaveseen. Stephenthe
Bridget,Osbernesoonfeels theurgeto wanderfrom laboreris agoodcompanionwhoteaches theboy the
home. Despitebeatingsbyhisgrandfather,hebegins skillsheneedstohuntwell,andhealsosendsOsbeme
toexplorehissurrooodings,aidedbyaseriesofhelpful tohismeetingwithElfbildcladinhisemblematicred
guardian-figureswhosharevariousdegreesofkinship. coat,symboloflaterrolesaslover,soldier,andradical
withthespiritworld. ADwarf,forexample,threatens insurgent.
atfirst to beheadhim, butthen gives thecourageous ThemostimportantofOsbeme's"fosterers,"how-,
boy a knife and promises the latergiftofan ancient ever,isSteelhead,apartlysupernaturalbeingcapable
sword,fashionedbyhisowngrandfather. Aresident ofchanginghisshapeatwill. Hislanguageisinacces~
farmband,StephentheEater,prescientlyadvises him sibletoOsbeme'speople,andhisvisitationsremaina
tovisittheedgeoftheFlood,wherehefirstseesElfbild lifelongsecret
ontheotherside.
The most significant such figure, however, is an. Now thatIknowthyname, itis likethatthou wouldst
imposinglcelandic-aljUr-like traveler whodescribes knowmineandwhoIam; butmyverynameImaynot
himselfvariouslyas"Steelhead,""Wayfarer,"andone tell thee,forthytonguehasnowordforit, butnowand
ofthe"warriorsofwhileagone"(50-51). Heprovides whenwe meetagainthoumaystcall meSteelhead: and
theyouthwithamagicallyefficaciousbow,andlater thou shalt know that when next we meet I shall be
withthepowerfulswordBoardcleaver,whoseconsid arrayedallotherwisethannow. InthatarrayIdeemthou
erablepowersareconditionaluponproperuse: wilt know me, but look to it that thou show no sign
thereofbeforeothermen...(26)
Nowthen thouhastthe sword; butIlay this upon thee
therewith, thatthoube no brawlernormake-bate, and Steelhead later returns before Osbeme's fourteenth
thatthoudrawnotBoardcleaverinany falsequarrel,or birthday (the age of Icelandic confirmation) to give
in behalfofanytyrantorevil-doer,orelseshallthyluck himthecharmedswordandperformsakindofbaptis~
fail theedespite thebladethatlieth hiddenthere. (49) mal laying on of hands. This strange event, part
homoeroticandpartpaternal,isdescribedasfollows:
UnliketheyooogOdysseusvisitedbyAthenaorJason
byJuno,all three ofOsbeme'smentoringfigures are Sotheydidofftheirraiment,bothofthem,andwentinto
male; theelderlywomenfolkserveOsbemefoodand thebiggestofthepoolshardby;andifSteelheadwerea.
praisehimaffectionately toneighbors,butrecoil 00 noble-looking man clad, far nobler was he to lookon
derstandablywhenhereturnshomewiththeheads of naked,forhewasbothbigandwellshapen,sothatbetter
threewolveshehaskilledwiththeDwarf'sknife. Real mightnotbe. AsforOsberne,therelooked butlittleof
fathers are seldom fostering in Morris's romance himwhenhewasunclad,as isthefashionoflads tobe
world,andsoitis notsurprisingthatOsbeme's cow lank, yetforhisage he wasfull well shapen.. , Then
ardly grandfatherserveschieflyas afoil to his inge~ Steelheadcalledtheladtohimall nakedas hewas,and
niousandhospitablegrandson. said: "Standthoubeforeme,youngling,andIwillgive
20 JOURNALOFPRE-RAPHAELITESTUDIES
theeagiftwhichshallgowellwithBoardcleaver," And Elfhild'sliferunsparalleltoOsbeme'sthroughout
the lad stood still before him, and Steelhead laid his the tale, but the division of gender roles remarked
handson theheadofhimfirst, andletthemabidethere earlierisverypronounced. OsbemeandElfhildlove
awhile;thenhepassedhishandsovertheshouldersand each other faithfully, but in contrast to the shared
armsoftheboy,andhislegsandthighsandbreast,and joumeyofRalph and Ursulain Well at the World's
alloverhisbody;andtherewithhesaid: "Inourdaysand End, their lives follow near-separate paths until the
theoldentimeitwasthewontoffathers toblesstheir tale's conclusion, at which point they finally blend
childreninthiswise;butforthee,thyfatherisdead,and together. WhenOsbemeandElfhildmeetacross the
thynighestkinsmanislittle-heartedandsomewhatofa Flood, she is the only otheryoung inhabitantofthe
churl. ThusthenhaveIdonetotheetotaketheplaceof region,ashepherdessnotquitea yearyoungerthanhe.
a fathertothee...Nowitisdone, socovertheein thy Sincethetwoliveonoppositesidesoftheimpassible
raimentandrestawhile;andthenIwilldepartandleave Flood,they canonlyshouttooneanotheracross the
thee to the might which I have given thee, and the divide. like Osbeme, Elfhildis anorphan with an
valiancewhichhathgrownupin thineheart"(50) unhospitablehome,ruledbytwohostileandpuritanic
calaunts. Forsolacefromtheirharshregime,shehas
They later share a (symbolic) meal, and Steelhead oftenclimbeddowntoacaveontheriver,alegendary
kisses him farewell. Shortly thereafterOsbemeenc dwellingofthe Dwarfs, and they have providedher
counters and kills his first adversary, the thug with two importantgifts: a pipe which she uses to
Hardcastle, who has tried to steal his grandparents' dance and charm hersheep, anda jewelednecklace
farm. Atseveral nodal pointslaterin the tale, Steel~ whichhelpsrenderherattractivetoOsbeme. Osbeme
head will again return, each time to provide aid or and Elfhild know that their respective possessions
counsel which will save Osbeme's life. The final reflectdifferentfates; whenOsbemeboyishlyoffers
insistanceofthisoccurswhenOsbernereturnshometo her his Dwarf-wrought whittle, she refuses on the
Eltbild,afterthesuccessfulrevolutiondescribedabove. groundsthat,'Thatwereagiftforamanbutnotforme;
Threethievesattackhimfrombehindwhilehedrinks keep it, dear and kind lad" (38). She, in turn, inno
from a ghyll, butthey are frightened away by Steel centlyoffershimhernecklace,butherespondsinkind:
head, who is arrayed "in a scarlet kirtle, as they "as tothenecklace, thatis woman's gearevenas the
deemed,andabrightsteelbasnet" (179). Thisstrange whittleisman's" (38).
guardian warrior-angel then staunches the wounded Even Elfhild's name suggest a clear tie with the
Osbeme'sbloodandbearshiminhisarmstoanearby localspiritsandOsbeme'sloveforherandhisregion
hermitfor thehealingof"longleechdom"(180). merge. Osbemefirstleaves homeandtakesuparms
Thetale'sfinalaccountofOsbemealsoincludesa againstthelocalBaron'sarmyinpartfrom thedesire
reportthatafterhismarriageandreturntoEastdale,he tocircleroundtheas-yet-unbridged Flood,sothathe
continuesthroughthechangesofhislaterlifetomeet and Elfhildmayjoin. When he later returns home
this timelessfather-brother-figureinthemeadow: brieflyfromhisflI'Stencounters,thecoupleexchange
their trothplight, but soon afterwards Elfhild is abc
ItisfurthertobetoldthatonceineveryquarterOsbeme ductedbymauradingalliesoftheBarons'forces, and
wentintothatsamedalewhereinhefirstmetSteelhead, Osbeme immediately turns southwards to join the
and there he came to him, and they had converse t~ forces ofresistancetotheregion's attackers.
gether;andthoughOsbemechangedtheaspectofhim Throughouttheirearlyencounters,Osbeme's be
fromyeartoyear,asforSteelheadhechangednotatall, havior toward Elfhild is characterized by friendly
butwaseverthesameas whenOsbemefirst sawhim, admiration,growingattraction,andloyal responseto
andgoodlovetherewasbetweenthosetwain. (238) deep and somewhat anxious affection. The young
peoplemeetoftenacrosstheFlood,andshepines with
Steelhead's role as Osbeme'slifelong guardianand anxietyduringhisfirstbattleaselectedcaptainofthe
saviorthus blends theimageryofa post-resurrection forcesofEastdale. Whenshehearsthatotherwomen
Christ, a fostering alfur, and one of the heroes of admirehim,forexample,shelaments:
Morris'sbelovedIcelandicsagas,Gunnar,whowalks
stillabovehis"howe"inMorris's hauntingpoem. "[MlY carline saith ofthee, thatall women shall love
THELAST ROMANCES OFWILUAMMORRIS 21
thee;andthatismostlike,andwhatshallIdothen,Iwho mancetheloversare togetheronthesamesideofthe
shall besofarawayfrom thee?" Thenhesworetoher river,asOsbemecriesouttoher: '''0mysweet,where
thatwhateverootid he would always loveher, and she isnow theSunderingFlood?' Andtheretheywerein
made as if she were gladdened"again thereby;...But eachother'sarms,as thoughthelongyearshadnever
whenhewasgone,shesatdownandwept,sheknewnot been"(185)
why. (71-72) AnnanowrecountstoOsbernethewomen'sshared
adventures, which form an eleven-chapter separate
Theylaterpledge their troth, and Morrisdescribes 11 female joumey, inset in the larger tale. After the
figure ofearnestsensitivityandsimplegrace: merchantandhis henchmen havekidnapped thepair
from the banks ofthe Flood, a compassionatepass
In all herface was a look halfpiteous, as thoughshe erby,SirMarktheBlueKnight,rescuesandtakesthem
craved the love of folk; but yet both mirth and swift to his castlefor protection. During their stay at the
throughtbrakethrough itatwhiles,andsoberwisdom castle,messengersbringreports ofanespecially val~
shadeditintosomethinglikesternness. Low-bosomed iantcaptainintheserviceofSirGodrick'sforces,and
shewasyet,andthin-flanked,andhadlearnednotricks Elfhildrecognizedhimimmediately: "Whothencan
and gracesofmovementsuchas womenoftownsand this be same mine own beloved?" (215). The Blue
greathousesuseforthebeguilingofmen. Butthedear KnightlaterdiesintheserviceoftheBaron's League,
simplenessofherbody in thesedays when thejoyof and his mother's hostility forces the women to flee.
childhoodhadlefther,andahighheartofgoodlonging They fall prey to a band of merchant-slavers, but
waseverbeforeher, wasanallurementofloveandfar Anna's magic again enables them to flee, and she
beyondanyfooling suchas that (107) continues toguide theirfuture course withthe aidof
spells anddreams. Atlastthe womenarrivesafelyat
At this meeting, she reports to his dismay thata anAbbey, whereElfhildtells theabbotshewishes to
wealthymerchanthasspentthenightatthecottageshe findSirGodrick'schiefadjutant,andheassigns them
nowshareswithanolderfriendAnnaandhastriedfirst theguest-house to whichAnnahas ledOsbeme.
torapeandthentobuyher. The"carline"Annaturns Like Osbeme, Elfhildhas a same-sex companioIl
out to have redoubtable powers of wizardry, which andguardianforhertravels,butitis conspicuouslythe
eventually give credence to Elfhild's name. They by-now-somewhat-fonnidable"carline"Anna'sspells,
render the merchant immobile until the women can ratherthanancillaryexertionsonElfhild'spart,which
escape, buthe returns laterwitha bandofraiders to rescuethe womenfrom male violence. Thegrowing
abductthetwo women. This eventfinally breaksup bond between the older and younger woman, their
for good thepeace ofOsbeme's homesteadand pro mutual loyalty and resilience, and the old woman's
vides him with a double motive for the war which vigorousandprotectiveintelligenceneverthelessgive
follows. theirstoryconsiderableactiveforce. Justas Osbeme
DefenseofhishomelandandhissearchforElfhild has chosen Elfhild despite manifest interest in him
thus become the dual motives ofOsbeme's life for shown by other women, Elfhild has also rejected 11
severalyears,andwhentherevolutionaryforceshave worthyalternatesuitor,theBlueKnight,whosepoliti
prevailed,hesetsforthtofulfillthemorepersonalhalf calallegiancesaremisguidedbutwhocommentswith
ofhis mission. Afterheisambushedandhis wounds respectonthemotives ofSirGodrickandhisforces.
healedbya hermit'sleechcrnft,Osbemefinallyfinds Anna'slengthytaleprovidesa badlyneededcotmter
Anna,wholeadshimtoahouseintheforestwhereshe weight to the male battle plot, 11 partial symmetry
and Elfhildnow live. Shortly afterOsbeme arrives, whichisonlycompletedwhenthecouplefinallyreturn
the three thieves who hadambushedhimreappearat toWethermelfor theirlifeofpeacefuljointlabor.
the dwelling and threatenits inhabitants. One grabs Atthebeginning ofthese summaries, I suggested
Elfhild, butOsbeme thenmanages to drive all three that Morris alternated betweentwo polarized antith
outsideandkills themall. Elfhildresponds toallthis eses,ofrestless"masculine"conflictandrestful,"femi
withalarmanddistress;sheasks herfriend,"Mother, nine"love,andpointedtosomeofthefemalecharac-
whatisit? Whathasbefallen?"andisreassuredonly ters he created in the last decade of his life, who
when Osberne returns. For the first time in the ro- expressedhiscounterfactualidealofnaturalfullness,