gender differences in death anxiety explained

128 Pages·2016·2.92 MB·English

FEARING THE REAPER: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN
DEATH ANXIETY EXPLAINED BY RELIGIOUS
DOUBTS, FEMININITY AND FEAR OF CRIME

By
ROBERT HEYWARD DRINKWATER
Bachelor of Arts in Psychology
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC
2008

Master of Arts in Clinical Mental Health Counseling
Appalachian State University
Boone, NC
2012

Submitted to the Faculty of the
Graduate College of the
Oklahoma State University
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
July, 2016
FEARING THE REAPER: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN
DEATH ANXIETY EXPLAINED BY RELIGIOUS
DOUBTS, FEMININITY AND FEAR OF CRIME

Dissertation Approved:

John Romans, Ph.D.
Dissertation Adviser
Julie Koch, Ph.D.

Al Carlozzi, Ph.D.

Hugh Crethar, Ph.D.

Tamara Mix, Ph.D.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank my son Cooper Heyward Norris for
providing me with motiviaiton and purpose. This dissertation is for you, my boy.
Secondly, I would like to thank my family for their unwavering support throughout this
adurious process. To my parents: Ann Heyward, Bruce Drinkwater, Robert Dulin, and
Colene Menyhert, I appreciate all of your help. I could not have done this without it. I
would like to thank my aunts Carter Heyward and Sue Sasser who encouraged me to
pursue my dreams and made my doctoral studies possible. Also, I would like to
acknowledge my great aunt and uncle, Luther and Marsha Carter. They allowed me to
live with them as I finished my dissertation and completed my predoctoral internship.

I am hugely endebted to my partner Audrey Rosenblatt for the time and engery
she spent editing my dissertation. Similarly, I would like to thank my good friend and
cohort member Kerry Karaffa for his time and statistical expertise during the anaylsis of
my data. Addtionally, I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr. Julie Koch for pushing
me further than what I thought possible. Thank you also to all my remaining committee
members: Dr. Al Carlozzi, Dr. Hugh Crethar, and Dr. Tammy Mix. Last, I would like to
express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. John Romans for his constistent support,
advice, and feedback. Thank you all.
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Acknowledgments
 reflect
 the
 views
 of
 the
 author
 and
 are
 not
 endorsed
 by
 committee
 members

or
 Oklahoma
 State
 University.
Name: ROBERT HEYWARD DRINKWATER

Date of Degree: JULY, 2016

Title of Study: FEARING THE REAPER: GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DEATH
ANXIETY EXPLAINED BY RELIGIOUS DOUBTS, FEMININITY
AND FEAR OF CRIME

Major Field: COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY

Abstract: High levels of death anxiety have been shown to positively correlate with
mental distress, diminished psychological well-being and psychological disorders.
Research on death anxiety has consistently found that females report higher levels of
death anxiety than males, and constructs related to religiosity and sex role socialization
have been shown to partially explain gender differences in death anxiety. Nonetheless,
other factors which may explain the relationship between gender and death anxiety
remain largely unexplored. In this study, 409 undergraduate and graduate students
enrolled at a large public university completed an 86-item online survey that assessed
their level of death anxiety, religious doubts, femininity, and fear of crime. This study
first sought to assess whether gender differences in death anxiety existed in the sample.
As hypothesized, and in line with previous research, a significant gender effect was
found, with females reporting significantly higher levels of death anxiety than males. The
results suggest that religious doubts and fear of crime were positively correlated with
death anxiety, and younger participants, Greek-affiliated participants, and those who
identified as racial and ethnic minorities also reported higher levels of death anxiety. As
expected, fear of crime was found to fully mediate the relationship between gender and
death anxiety. Also consistent with the research hypotheses, the results suggest that
religious doubts did not moderate the relationship between gender and death anxiety. The
hypothesis that femininity would moderate the relationship between gender and death
anxiety was not supported. Theoretical and clinical implications, as well as directions for
future research are discussed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE...................................................................................5

Terror Management Theory.....................................................................................5
Religious Doubts......................................................................................................7
Gender......................................................................................................................9
Femininity..............................................................................................................11
Fear of Crime.........................................................................................................13
Purpose of Study....................................................................................................16

III. METHODOLOGY................................................................................................18

Participants.............................................................................................................18
Instruments.............................................................................................................19
Procedures..............................................................................................................27

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Chapter Page

IV. RESULTS..............................................................................................................30

Hypothesis 1..........................................................................................................30
Hypothesis 2..........................................................................................................31
Hypothesis 3..........................................................................................................31
Hypothesis 4..........................................................................................................32
Hypothesis 5..........................................................................................................34
Hypothesis 6..........................................................................................................35

V. DISCUSSION........................................................................................................37

Death Anxiety........................................................................................................37
Religious Doubts....................................................................................................40
Femininity..............................................................................................................41
Fear of Crime.........................................................................................................43
Strengths and Limitations......................................................................................45
Implications, Future Directions, and Conclusions.................................................48

REFERENCES............................................................................................................53

APPENDICES.............................................................................................................79

Appendix A: Tables and Figures...........................................................................80
Appendix B: Extended Review of Literature........................................................85
Appendix C: Informed Consent Agreement........................................................108
Appendix D: Demographic Questionnaire..........................................................110
Appendix E: Revised Death Anxiety Scale.........................................................112
Appendix F: Religious Doubts Scale...................................................................114
Appendix G: Bem Sex Role Inventory-Short Form (Sample Items)...................115
Appendix H: Measure of Fear of Crime..............................................................116
Appendix I: Validity Item....................................................................................117
Appendix J: Oklahoma State University IRB Approval......................................119
Appendix K: Debriefing Statement.....................................................................120

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants........................................................79
2: Zero-Order Correlation Matrix for Regression Variables....................................80
3: Hierarchical Regression Examining Gender X BSRI Interaction........................81
4: Hierarchical Regression Examining Religious Doubts X BSRI Interaction........82

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1: Indirect Effect of Gender on Death Anxiety Through Fear of Crime..................83

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Death is a natural consequence of living and is humankind’s primary existential
constraint (Becker, 1973; Yalom, 1980). Research on death and dying has found that
human beings tend to fear death and have a high need to defend against the awareness of
their morality (Cicirelli, 2002; Greenberg, Pyszczynski, Solomon, Simon, & Breus, 1994;
Wass & Neimeyer, 1995; Yalom, 1980). The fear of death, referred to as “death anxiety,”
stems from the psychological knowledge and individual awareness that all living
organisms are doomed to perish (Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991; Yalom,
2008). Death anxiety can be defined as the feeling of dread or terror that accompanies the
awareness of an individual’s helplessness and vulnerability to complete annihilation and
non-existence (Cicirelli, 2006; Greenberg, Koole, & Pyszczynski, 2004; Rank, 1978).
According to Becker (1973), the awareness that gives rise to death anxiety
requires both reflective and conceptual cognitive processes of which only humans are
capable (p. 27). This ability to understand life and death through reflective, conceptual,
and forward thinking creates an insoluble diemma for humankind ( Becker, 1973;
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Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004). Becker (1973) refers to this
dilemma as “the condition of individuality within finitude” in that humans are split between
being an animal and of the flesh, and being symbolic, “seemingly capable of transcending
life itself” (p. 26). In Becker’s (1973) words, humankind’s paradox is that they are both “out
of nature, and hopelessly in it” (p. 26). Death anxiety arises because humankind houses self-
consciousness of thought and with it the awareness of mortality and instinct for self-
preservation (Greenberg et al., 1994). The human drive toward survival eventually collides
within the confines of human existence; the inevitable outcome of which is psychological
distress, anxiety, and terror.
While some individuals can cope with the anxiety that accompanies the inevitability
of death, others cannot. Excessive levels of mortality salience (i.e., awareness of one’s
mortality) erode the psychological defenses that shield individuals from having to directly
face death (Greenberg et al., 2004). High levels of death anxiety have been associated with a
number of psychological maladies, such as phobias (Yalom, 1980; Wolfe, 2005), anxiety
disorders (Abdel-Khalek 2005; Fortner & Neimeyer, 1999, May, 1983; Wolfe, 2005), eating
disorders (Farber, Jackson, Tabin, & Bachar, 2007; Jackson, Davidson, Russell, &
Vandereycken, 1990), post-traumatic stress disorder (Gershuny, Cloitre, & Otto, 2003;
Martz, 2004), depression (Abdel-Khalek, 2006; Templer, 1971), self-harm (Farber, Jackson,
Tabin, & Bachar, 2007), suicide (Minear & Brush, 1981; Neimeyer, 1994), compulsive
behaviors (Yalom, 1980), anti-social behaviors (Greenberg et al., 2004), and psychotic
symptoms (Schneider, 2008; Solomon et al., 1991; Yalom, 1980). Additional research
indicates that, in young adult populations, death anxiety is negatively correlated with well-
being (Eshbaugh & Henninger, 2013) and achievement (Moeller, 1985), and it has also been
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