Table Of ContentLogan Clendening Lectures on the History and
Philosophy of Medicine
Third Series
Galen of Pergamon
by
George Sarton
[pages reflowed from fuzzy .djvu copy which is sometimes better detailed]
[needs more careful proofing especially the Latin, French and German]
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PRESS, LAWRENCE, KANSAS . . . 1954
Copyright, 1954, by the University of Kansas Press
All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number:
54-8112
PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
BY THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PRESS
LAWRENCE, KANSAS
Preface
To be invited to deliver the Clendening Lectures in the University of Kansas was a great
privilege, and I would like to begin mine with a tribute to the memory of Dr. Logan
Clendening. We were born in the same year, I in Ghent, Belgium, and he in Kansas City,
but this was my first visit to his native town, and I never had the honor and pleasure of
meeting him in the flesh. Yet, I can see him because of his own words which often
revealed his generous nature and because of the words of his friends, in particular, Dr.
Ralph H. Major.1 His was an astounding personality, and we owe gratitude to him not
only for what he did himself but also for the encouragement he gave to others. He was
primarily a physician, but he was a physician who loved old books and old learning, and
loved them more and more as he grew older. I need not speak of his collections, which
are now the main treasure of the University of Kansas Medical Center. He had travelled
widely to obtain them and to visit as a pilgrim the main medical shrines; he was a
humanist as well as a physician, a teacher of the humanities, and he influenced many
students and colleagues in the same way that Welch, Osier, and Cushing influenced them.
The medical profession and indeed all the scientific professions need such men deeply.
Kansas City and the University of Kansas were very fortunate to have him in their midst,
and they have him forever.
---
1. Ralph H. Major: Logan Clendening (Bulletin of the history of medicine 18, 199-206,
1945) with portrait and bibliography.
Galen of Pergamon
As I am writing these lines, the sad news of Dr. Skinner's death reaches me and I would
like to evoke his memory also. Though he was primarily a physician and radiologist,
under the influence of Dr. Clendening and of Dr. Ralph Major, he became more and more
interested in the history of medicine, was appointed a special lecturer in the subject and
helped to enrich the Clendening Library. He died in Kansas City on January 11, 1953, at
the age of 72 years.2
I delivered two lectures, the first at the University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kansas, May
1, 1952, the second, the following day at the Medical Center in Kansas City, Kansas. The
first lecture dealt with the Alexandrian Renaissance, the second with Galen, two subjects
separated by an interlude of more than three centuries.
This book reproduces the second lecture as faithfully as possible, but not the first. This requires
an explanation, which I am delighted to give, because I feel that there is a great need of it.
My Kansas lectures were spoken lectures, delivered in a living way with a minimum of
notes. There is an immense difference between a spoken lecture and a.written paper, and
it is a great pity that so few scholars appreciate it and that so many insist on reading aloud
learned papers which are meant to be read silently and individually by each reader at his
own speed. The difference between a spoken lecture and a written paper is of the same
kind as that between a fresco to be seen by a large audience from a distance, and a
miniature which should be examined very closely.
---
2. For more information, see Medical Center Bulletin, Kansas City, February 1953.
As the speaker must avoid details which the listener could not catch on the wing, it is
possible for him to cover a much wider field. For example, in my first lecture, I gave a
survey or panorama of the astounding Renaissance which took place in Alexandria in the
third century before Christ. I dealt with an apparently endless series of topics, and my
written account of them will cover hundreds of pages of the second volume of my
History of science. The second lecture was easier to indite, because it dealt mainly with a
single personality,—it is true, one of the greatest in the whole history of science. Even so,
reading it aloud would take almost three hours. In my opinion, the reading aloud of a
written paper is a cardinal sin, as deplorable as meretricious writing; it is a wicked
procedure, utterly contemptuous of the audience and unfair to it.
As mechanical progress discourages the printing of Greek type, it has become necessary
to transcribe the Greek words in our alphabet as exactly as possible. The diphthongs are
written as in Greek, with the same vowels (e.g., at, not ae; ei, not i; oi, not oe), except ou,
which is written u to conform with English pronunciation (by the way, the Greek ou is
not a real diphthong but a single vowel sound). The omicron is always replaced by an o,
and hence Greek names are not Latinized but preserve their Greek look and sound. There
is really no reason for giving a Latin ending to a Greek name when one is writing not in
Latin but in English. Hence, we write "Epicuros," not "Epicurus" (the two u's of the Latin
word represent different Greek vowels). We indicate the differences between the short
vowels epsilon and omicron and the long ones eta and omega, as we have just done in
their names. Hence, we shall write Heron, Philon, but some names have become so
familiar to English readers that we must write them in the English way. We cannot help
writing "Plato" instead of "Platon" and "Aristotle" instead of "Aristoteles," etc. For more
details, see my History of science, p. xvii. 28
February 1953 George Sarton
Contents
Preface v
I. The Roman World in the Second Century 3
II. Pergamon 6
III. Galen's Life 15
IV. Galen's Writings 25
V. The Medical Sects in Galen's Time 30
VI. The Anatomist and Physiologist 39
VII. The Physician, Surgeon, and Pharmacist 61
VIII. The Philosopher, Historian, and Philologist 70
IX. Character and Style 78
X. Galen's Influence 88
Appendix I. Chronological Summary:
1. Galen 94
2. Roman Emperors 94
3. Galen's Contemporaries Mentioned in the Text 95
Appendix II. Galenic Treatises
Translated from the Arabic 99
Appendix III. Galenic Texts
Available in English Translation 101
Index 109
Illustrations
Map of the Country around Pergamon 7
Plan of the Asclepieion 11
Abbreviations
Indications such as "(HI-2 B.C.)" or "(II-l)" after a name mean two things: (1) the
man flourished in the second half of the third century before Christ or in the first half of
the second century; (2) he is dealt with in my Introduction.
CMG. Corpus Medicorum Graecorum ediderunt Academiae Berolinensis Havniensis
Lipsiensis. Berolini in aedibus Academiae Litterarum, 1927 ff. (Isis 42, 348, also 150).
History of science. Sarton's book of that title, vol. 1, published by the Harvard
University Press, 1952. It deals with ancient science down to the end of the fourth
century B.C.
Horus. Sarton: A guide to the history of science (xviii +316 p.; Waltham, Mass.:
Chronica Botanica, 1952).
Introd. Sarton: Introduction to the history of science (3 vols, in 5; Baltimore:
Williams & Wilkins, 1927-48).
Isis. International review devoted to the history of science and civilization (45 vols.,
1913-54). Now published by the Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Kühn. Greek-Latin edition of Galen's works edited by Karl Gottlob Kühn (20 vols, in
22; Leipzig, 1821-33).
OCD. The Oxford classical dictionary (xx+971 p., quarto; Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1949).
Osiris. Commentationes de scientiarum et eruditionis historia rationeque. Edidit
Georgius Sarton (11 vols.; Bruges, Belgium: St. Catherine Press, 1936-54).
PW. Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft
(Stuttgart, 1894 ff.).
I. The Roman World in the Second Century
Before speaking of Galen it is necessary to evoke, however briefly, the world in
which he was living, or rather the two worlds, the greater one, the Roman Empire, and
the smaller one, Pergamon which was his cradle.
It was his privilege to know the Empire in its golden age, the age of the good
emperors; his lifetime (130-c. 200) almost coincided with the rule of the Antonines, the
noble Antoninus Pius (138-61) and Antoninus' nobler son, Marcus Aurelius (161-80); his
old age, however, was darkened by the despotic cruelty of Commodus. The center of the
western world was Rome, and we shall see that Galen spent there many years of his life,
though he traveled considerably in other parts of the Empire. He must have known that
world very well, and have experienced repeatedly its unity in spite of infinite variety.
By this time the golden age of Latin literature was already past, all the masterpieces
were written, and yet the top culture was Greek. The Empire was bilingual; Greek was
the language of science and philosophy, Latin that of administration and business. It was
impossible to find an educated man in the whole Empire who understood neither Greek
nor Latin; the elite was familiar with both languages. After all, the Romans were
fortunate in that they needed only those two languages; an educated man of our own time
needs those two plus many others. The extent of Greek education available in the Empire
can be inferred from the older writings of Cicero (I-1 B.C.) and from the famous textbook
of Quintilian
[3]
The Roman World in the Second Century
(I-2), De institutione oratoria. The sons of Roman patricians were intrusted to the
care of Greek tutors and were often sent to complete their education in Alexandria or
Athens; if at all gifted, they became able to speak and write in Greek as well as in Latin.
During the rule of Hadrian (117-38), a kind of university, or rather of a college of arts
(ludus ingenuarum artium) had been established in Rome. Its name was, typically
enough, Athenaeum,1 suggesting the goddess Athene, the city Athens, the golden age of
Greece. Our knowledge of the Roman Athenaeum is rudimentary. A number of
professors were teaching philosophy and rhetoric; it is probable that scientific subjects
were not taught except insofar as they could be put within the frame of oratorical
teaching in Quintilian's style.2 The Athenaeum continued to exist at least until the IVth
century.3 It served as a school of Hellenism; it served also as a school of Latin letters for
the young men who came from the eastern provinces and wanted to prepare themselves
for administrative or professional careers.
The coexistence of two languages was then and has always been an intellectual tool of
great value; it was then and has always been a means of social exclusiveness and of
snobbishness. There is no simpler way of keeping intruders off than speaking a language
which they do not understand.4 We may be sure that Roman gentlemen
---
1. Athenaion in Greek. The name had the same fortune as older ones, Academy, Lyceum, Museum. All of
them belong to the languages of almost every western nation and are used to designate institutions of
learning and culture. There were Athenaia in Greece, but the word Athenaeum evokes the Roman
exemplar.
2. Quintilian: Institutio oratoria (book 2, ch. 18).
3. Its existence is referred to about 360 by Sextus Aurelius Victor, governor of Pannonia Secunda.
4. Compare the use of French by noblemen in medieval England; the use of Latin in France; the use of
French in eighteenth-century Germany (the official languages of the Prussian Academy were Latin and
French, German being excluded).
[4]
Galen of Pergamon
used that method and spoke Greek when they did not wish to be overheard. The Latin
language had obtained a measure of prestige in philosophy, thanks to Lucretius, Cicero,
and Seneca, and the same is true to a smaller extent of science, thanks to Vitruvius,
Celsus, Pliny, and Frontinus.4bis Yet, the main works continued to be written in Greek.
The second century might be called the golden age of Roman science, because of the
astounding activities of Ptolemy and Galen; these two giants were of Greek origin, and
their masterpieces were written in the Greek language and were not even translated into
Latin (that is, in the early Roman days). This illustrates a peculiar trait of Roman culture;
it is as odd as if the main books of early American science had been written, not in
English, but in French or German.
---
4bis. None of these Latin writers was ever mentioned by Galen. He was not aware of
their existence.
[5]
II. Pergamon
It is not possible in this lecture to describe the Roman world and its political vicissitudes,
but it is necessary to say something of the city of Pergamon,5 where Galen was born.
Hellenistic science developed mainly in Alexandria, which is far better known to most
readers. Pergamon became one of Alexandria's rivals; it was located, not in Egypt like the
latter, but in Asia Minor, on the mainland almost opposite the island of Lesbos.6 There
were other differences between the two cities.
Alexandria was at the seaside and has remained to this day one of the leading
Mediterranean harbors; Pergamon was some fifteen miles inland (a long distance in those
times) in a very beautiful and fertile valley.7
The site was selected in early times, because there was a steep hill towering a thousand
feet above the plain near the confluence of three rivers. The masters built for themselves
an acropolis from which they could dominate the region and exploit its produce,
industries, and commerce; later a larger city (the lower town) spread close to the rivers;
many temples and theatres were built on the slope of the hill and could be seen one above
the other upon successive terraces. It must have been an impressive site for the visitor
who came from the sea or the plains. No such vision was possible when one approached
Alexandria, for that city is so flat that it can hardly be seen from a distance.
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5. The present Turkish name is Bergama. Compare with the name Bergamo o£ a province and city of
Lombardy.
6. Lesbos is sacred to us because of her poets, especially Sappho, and of Aristotle and Theophrastos
(History of science 1, 547, 1952).
7. The valley of the Caicos is joined near the site of Pergamon by two smaller rivers, Ceteios and Selinus.
See map.
[6]
Pergamon
A settlement existed in Pergamon from time immemorial, but it did not assume any
importance before the third century B.C. The kingdom of Pergamon began
Map of the country around Pergamon; after E. V. Hansen: The Attalids
(Ithaca, 1947); see end of this chapter.
in 280 B.C., but the title of king was assumed only by Attalos I half a century later after
his victory over the Gauls (Galatians).8 The Hellenistic Attalid dynasty lasted
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8. These Gauls were real Gauls or Celts who had moved eastward and settled in Bithynia at the
invitation of Nicomedes I (278-50); they were defeated by Antiochos I Soter in 276, and again by Attalos I
Soter, c. 235. The country which they occupied in the center of Asia Minor was called Galatia, and it is
better to call them Galatians than Gauls, for they intermarried with the natives or with Greek immigrants
and must have become very different from their ancestors of W. Europe. The Romans called them Gallo-
Graeci, because they had learned the Greek language and Greek manners. They are the people to whom
Paul the Apostle addressed one of his epistles.
[7]
Galen of Pergamon
only a century and a half (280-133), and its golden age occurred in the second century,
that is, a century later than Alexandria's. The city proved to be an excellent center for
agricultural and commercial purposes, and its growing prosperity fostered the
development of many arts and crafts.
To return to Attalos I, his victory over his eastern neighbors the Galatians occurred
about the year 235; he then added to his possessions a large part of the old Seleucid
kingdom, assumed the title of king, and began the dangerous alliance of his kingdom with
Rome, which ended in 133 B.C., when Rome absorbed Pergamon. In the meanwhile,
Attalos enjoyed his prosperity and power; he was anxious to emulate the rulers of
Alexandria and Rhodes; the planning of his capital was intrusted to a Greek architect,
who made sure that every public building would appear in all its glory. Pergamon became
one of the most beautiful Hellenistic cities.
The Pergamene Renaissance begun under Attalos I Soter (241-197) reached its climax
under his son and successor, Eumenes II (197-60).9 It was Attalos who decided to
express his gratitude to Zeus for his great victory over the Galatians by the erection of a
grandiose altar upon one of the terraces of the upper town. The altar was forty feet high
and decorated with immense friezes in very high relief representing the battle between
gods (the Pergamenians) and giants (the defeated Galatians). One can readily imagine
that the creation of such a gigantic
---
9. It is as difficult to divide the credit between Attalos Soter and Eumenes II, as it is to
divide it between Ptolemaios Soter and Ptolemaios Philadelphos. It is simpler to ascribe
the Pergamene renaissance (and the Alexandrian renaissance) to both kings.
[8]
Pergamon
monument was a great opportunity for the Pergamene sculptors; it is probable that their
work was completed only in the rule of Eumenes II. This monument was very familiar to
the modern world, because it was taken to Germany and admirably exhibited in the
Berlin Museum.10
The Pergamene school of sculpture became one of the outstanding ones of Hellenistic
times. Attalid patronage was dedicated also to Greek literature, and Eumenes II
established a library which) he wanted to rival that of Alexandria. He was so eager to
obtain books that people owning valuable ones were obliged to hide "them; it is even said
that his eagerness and the rivalry between both libraries caused the forging of
manuscripts.11 According to Varro12 one Ptolemy (probably Ptolemaios V Epiphanes,
205-181) forbade the exportation of papyrus in order to stop the growth of the Pergamene
library; this led to the discovery (or to the more frequent use and improvement) of
another kind of writing material, the skins (diphtherai) of animals, and that material was
called charta pergamena or parchment. Thus, each time that we use the word parchment
