Fundamentals of Ecological Modelling

543 Pages·2001·21.85 MB·English

by  by S.E. Jorgensen and G. Endoricchio

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Third edition 2001
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A catalog record from the Library of Congress has been applied for.
ISBN: 0-080-44015-0 (Hardbound edition)
ISBN: 0-080-44028-2 (Paperback edition)
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Printed in The Netherlands.
Contents
Preface, Third Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Physical and Mathematical Models .......................... 1
1.2 Models as a Management Tool ............................ 3
1.3 Models as a Scientific Tool .............................. 4
1.4 Models and Holism .................................. 7
1.5 The Ecosystem as an Object for Research ..................... 9
1.6 Outline of the Book ................................. 11
1.7 The Development of Ecological and Environmental Models .......... 14
1.8 State of the Art in the Application of Models .................. 16
2. Concepts of Modelling .................................... 19
2.1 Introduction ...................................... 19
2.2 Modelling Elements ................................. 19
2.3 The Modelling Procedure .............................. 23
2.4 Types of Model .................................... 31
2.5 Selection of Model Type ............................... 35
2.6 Selection of Model Complexity and Structure .................. 39
2.7 Verification ...................................... 52
2.8 Sensitivity Analysis .................................. 59
2.9 Parameter Estimation ................................ 62
2.10 Validation ....................................... 78
2.11 Ecological Modelling and Quantum Theory, ................... 80
2.12 Modelling Constraints ................................ 83
Problems ........................................... 91
3. Ecological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3A.1 Space and Time Resolution ............................. 94
3A.2 Mass Transport .................................... 97
Contents
3A.3 Mass Balance .................................... 111
3A.4 Energetic Factors .................................. 116
3A.5 Settling and Resuspension ............................. 123
3B.1 Chemical Reactions ................................. 129
3B.2 Chemical Equilibrium ................................ 136
3B.3 Hydrolysis ...................................... 140
3B.4 Redox ........................................ 141
3B.5 Acid-Base ...................................... 145
3B.6 Adsorption and Ion Exchange ........................... 148
3B.7 Volatilization .................................... 156
3C.1 Biogeochemical Cycles in Aquatic Environments ............... 159
3C.2 Photosynthesis .................................... 183
3C.3 Algal Growth .................................... 186
3C.4 Zooplankton Growth ................................ 192
3C.5 Fish Growth ..................................... 195
3C.6 Single Population Growth ............................. 199
3C.7 Ecotoxicological Processes ............................. 201
Problems ........................................... 208
4. Conceptual Models ..................................... 211
4.1 Introduction ..................................... 211
4.2 Application of Conceptual Diagrams ...................... 211
4.3 Types of Conceptual Diagrams ........................... 214
4.4. The Conceptual Diagram as Modelling Tool .................. 221
Problems ........................................... 223
5. Static Models ........................................ 225
5.1 Introduction ..................................... 225
5.2 Network Models ................................... 226
5.3 Network Analysis .................................. 230
5.4 ECOPATH Software ................................ 236
5.5 Response Models .................................. 248
6. Modelling Population Dynamics .............................. 257
6.1 Introduction ..................................... 257
6.2 Basic Concepts ................................... 257
6.3 Growth Models in Population Dynamics .................... 258
6.4 Interaction between Populations .......................... 262
6.4 Matrix Models .................................... 273
Problems ........................................... 276
7. Dynamic Biogeochemical Models ............................. 277
7.1 Introduction ..................................... 277
7.2 Application of Dynamic Models .......................... 278
7.3 Eutrophication Models I: Overview and Two Simple Eutrophication
Models ........................................ 280
7.4 Eutrophication Models II: A Complex Eutrophication Model ........ 289
7.5 A Wetland Model .................................. 303
Problems ........................................... 311
Contents vii
8. Ecotoxicologicai Models .................................. 313
8.1 Classification and Application of Ecotoxicological Models .......... 313
8.2 Environmental Risk Assessment .......................... 316
8.3 Characteristics and Structure of Ecotoxicological Models ........... 326
8.4 An Overview: The Application of Models in Ecotoxicology .......... 336
8.5 Estimation of Ecotoxicological Parameters ................... 339
8.6 Ecotoxicological Case Study I: Modelling the Distribution of Chromium
in a Danish Fjord .................................. 348
8.7 Ecotoxicological Case Study II: Contamination of Agricultural Products
by Cadmium and Lead ............................... 355
8.8 Ecotoxicological Case Study III: A Mercury Model for Mex Bay,
Alexandria ...................................... 361
8.9 Fugacity Fate Models ................................ 370
Problems ........................................... 376
9. Recent Developments in Ecological and Environmental Modelling ......... 381
9.1 Introduction ..................................... 381
9.2 Ecosystem Characteristics ............................. 382
9.3 Structurally Dynamic Models ........................... 390
9.4 Four Illustrative Structurally Dynamic Case Studies .............. 400
9.5 Application of Chaos Theory in Modelling ................... 412
9.6 Application of Catastrophe Theory in Ecological Modelling ......... 420
9.7 New Approaches in Modelling Techniques ................... 429
Problems ........................................... 441
Appendix 1. Mathematical Tools ................................ 443
A. 1 Vectors ........................................ 444
A.2 Matrices ....................................... 447
A.3 Square Matrices. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ................ 455
A.4 Differential Equations ............................... 464
A.5 Systems of Differential Equations ......................... 474
A.6 Numerical Methods ................................. 484
Appendix 2. Definition of Expressions, Concepts and Indices ............... 495
Appendix 3. Parameters for Fugacity Models ......................... 499
References ............................................ 501
Subject Index .......................................... 523
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Preface, Third Edition
It is intended that this book be suitable for a variety of engineers and ecologists, who
may wish to gain an introduction to the rapidly growing field of ecological and
environmental modelling. An understanding of the fundamentals of environmental
problems and ecology, as presented for instance in the textbook Principles of
Environmental Science and Technology is assumed. Furthermore, it is assumed that
the reader has either a fundamental knowledge of differential equations and matrix
calculations or has read the Appendix, which gives a brief introduction to these
topics.
Only a very few books have been published that give an introduction to ecological
modelling. Although some cover particular aspects of the subjectwpopulation
dynamics, for instance--a book covering the entire spectrum of ecological modelling
is very difficult to find. There seems to be a need, therefore, for a book that is
applicable to courses in this subject. Although many books have been published on
the topic they usually require the reader to already have an understanding of the
field or at least to have had some experience in the development of ecological
models. This book aims to bridge the gap.
It has been the authors' aim to give an overview of the field which, on the one
hand, includes the latest developments and, on the other, teaches the reader to
develop his or her own models. An attempt has been made to meet these objectives
by including the following:
A detailed discussion of the modelling procedure with a step-by-step presenta-
~
tion of the development of the model. The advantages and shortcomings of
each step are discussed and simple examples illustrate all the steps. The volume
contains many illustrations and examples; the illustrations are models explained
in sufficient detail to allow the reader to construct the models, while the
examples are modelling itself. Further exercises in the form of problems can be
found at the end of most chapters.