Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

562 Pages·2015·66.11 MB·English

by  Donald C Rizzo

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Donald C. Rizzo, PhD
Professor Emeritus
Marygrove College
Detroit, Michigan
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Fundamentals of Anatomy and © 2016, 2010 Cengage Learning
Physiology, Fourth Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
Donald C. Rizzo
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Printed in the United States of America
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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv
To the Learner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv
Learning Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii
To the Instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xix
The Learning Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xx
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxii
How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxiii
1 Introduction 3
Terms of Direction 4
Planes 5
CHAPTER
Cavities 5
The Human Body Structural Units 6
Homeostasis 13
Summary Outline 14
Review Questions 15
2 Introduction 17
Atomic Structure 18
Elements, Isotopes, Compounds 18
CHAPTER
Bonds and Energy 20
The Chemistry of Life Common Substances in Living Systems 21
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Molecular Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Mineral Salts/Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Adenosine Triphosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Movement of Materials into and out of Cells 28
Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Summary Outline 33
Review Questions 36
Laboratory Exercise: The Chemistry of Life 37
v
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3 Introduction 39
History of the Cell Theory 41
Anatomy of a Typical Eukaryotic Cell 42
CHAPTER
The Cell Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Cell Structure Cytoplasm of the Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
The Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Nuclear Membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Nucleoplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chromatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Nucleolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Mitochondria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Lysosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Endoplasmic Reticulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
The Rough or Granular ER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Agranular or Smooth ER . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Golgi Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Ribosomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Centrioles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Cilia and Flagella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Plastids of Plant Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
The Cell Wall of Plant Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Summary Outline 52
Review Questions 54
Laboratory Exercise: Cell Structure 56
4 Introduction to Cellular Metabolism 62
Cellular Metabolism or Biochemical Respiration 62
Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
CHAPTER
The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Cellular Metabolism The Electron Transport (Transfer) System . . . . . . . .64
Summary of ATP Production during Glycolysis,
and Reproduction:
the Citric Acid Cycle, and Electron Transport . . . . .66
Mitosis and Meiosis
Anaerobic Respiration 66
Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles . . . . . . . .67
Production of ATP from General Food Compounds 67
Summary of ATP Production from One Glucose
Molecule 68
Introduction to Cellular Reproduction 68
The Structure of the DNA Molecule 69
The History of the Discovery of DNA . . . . . . . . . .69
The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule . . . . . . . . . . .71
vi
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The Cell Cycle 74
Interphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Prophase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Metaphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Anaphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Telophase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Cytokinesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Meiosis: A Reduction Division 76
The Stages of Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Prophase I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Metaphase I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Anaphase I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Telophase I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Prophase II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Metaphase II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Anaphase II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Telophase II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells 80
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis 80
Summary Outline 86
Review Questions 90
Laboratory Exercise: Cellular Metabolism 91
Laboratory Exercise: Cellular Reproduction 91
5 Introduction 94
Epithelial Tissue 94
Classification Based on Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
CHAPTER
Classification Based on Arrangement . . . . . . . . . .94
Tissues Classification Based on Function . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Connective Tissue 97
Loose Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Dense Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
Specialized Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Connective Tissue Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Muscle Tissue 104
Nervous Tissue 106
Summary Outline 107
Review Questions 109
Laboratory Exercise: Tissues 110
vii
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6
Introduction 113
The Layers of the Skin 113
CHAPTER The Epidermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
The Stratum Corneum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
The Integumentary The Stratum Lucidum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
The Stratum Granulosum . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
System
The Stratum Spinosum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
The Stratum Germinativum . . . . . . . . . . . .117
The Dermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
The Accessory Structures of the Skin 118
Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Hair Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Hair Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Hair Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Sebaceous Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Sweat Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Functions of the Integumentary System 124
Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Thermoregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Secretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Summary Outline 131
Review Questions 133
Laboratory Exercise: The Integumentary System 135
7 Introduction 138
The Functions of the Skeletal System 138
The Growth and Formation of Bone 138
CHAPTER
Deposition of Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Skeletal Types of Ossification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Maintaining Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
System
The Histology of Bone 143
The Haversian System of Compact Bone . . . . . . . 143
Cancellous Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Bone Marrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
The Classification of Bones Based on Shape 145
Long Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Short Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Flat Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Irregular Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Sesamoid Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
viii
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